In separate files:
Introduction and Contents
I. France
III. Austria
IV. Bavaria, Holland,
Saxony
V. Italy
VI. Russia
VII. Sweden, Norway,
Denmark
VIII. Great Britain
IX. Switzerland
X. United States
Report of the Commissioners appointed to consider the Best Mode of Re-organizing the System for Training Officers for the Scientific Corps; together with An Account of Foreign and other Military Education and An Appendix. London: 1857. pp. 442 and 245, folio.
Report from the Select Committee on Sandhurst Royal Military College; together with the Proceedings of the Committee, Minutes of Evidence, Appendix and Index. Printed by Order of the House of Commons. London: 1855. pp. 230, folio.
Helldorf’s Dienst-Vorschriften der Königlich-Preussischen Armee. Berlin, 1856.
Friedlander’s Kriegs-Schule.
Von Holleben, Paper on Military Education in Prussia.
Official Programme of the Principal Subjects of Instruction Taught in the Artillery and Engineer School at Berlin.
Account of the War, or Staff School at Berlin.
Directions for the Supreme Board of Military Studies. 1856.
Directions for the Supreme Military Examinations Commission. 1856.
Barnard’s National Education in Europe. 1852.
Bache’s Report on Education in Europe. 1838.
281According to the law of the 3rd of September, 1814, which is the basis of the present military organization of Prussia, every Prussian above twenty years of age, is bound to service in arms for the defense of his country.
The military force of the country is made up of three distinct bodies, and the whole of the adult male population is distributed among them. It consists of,—
I. The Standing Army.
II. The National Militia or Landwehr, divided into two portions, viz., the first Landwehr and the second Landwehr.
III. The Last Reserve or Landsturm.
I. The standing army is composed of all young men between twenty and twenty-five years of age. The period of service in time of war is for five years, but in time of peace the young soldiers can obtain leave of absence after three years’ service;—they belong for the remaining two years to what is termed the “reserve,” receiving neither pay nor clothing, and they are subject to be recalled if war should break out.
Encouragement, indeed, is given and advantages held out to induce men to stay, and to take a new engagement for an additional term of six years; but it is said that only a small number are thus obtained. The bulk of the troops are men serving for this short time; and there are many, it should be added, whose term of service is even yet shorter. For all educated young men, all, that is, who pass a certain examination, are allowed, on condition that they pay for their own equipment and receive no pay, to shorten their service from three years to one. This privilege appears to be very largely used. It should also be stated, that young men of any class may volunteer to perform their service at any age after seventeen.
The Prussian standing army amounts at the present time to 282 about 126,000 men. It is divided into nine army-corps or corps d’Armée, one of which is named the guard, and the others are numbered from I. to VIII. In each there is a regiment of artillery and a division of engineers. A regiment of artillery consists, in time of peace, of three divisions; each division of one troop of horse artillery and four companies, of which, one is Fortress artillery with two-horsed pieces. Each regiment has thus three companies for the service of the fortress and twelve for field service. The whole of the artillery is under the command of a general inspector, and it is divided into four inspections. An engineer division is composed of two companies. There are nine engineer divisions, one in each army corps. The whole are commanded by a general inspector, and they are divided into three inspections.
The promotion in the Prussian infantry and cavalry is regimental, and by seniority, up to the rank of major; after that it is by selection; and an officer who has been passed over two or three times may consider that he has received an intimation to retire from the service. In the artillery the promotion is by regiments; in the engineers it is general.
II. The first Landwehr, or Landwehr of the first summons (des ersten aufgebots,) consists principally of young men between twenty-five and thirty-two years of age, who enter when they have completed their period of service in the standing army. They are called out once every year for service with the divisions of the standing army to which they are attached, for a period varying from a fortnight to a month; and they may be sent in time of war on foreign service.
Those who have passed through the first Landwehr, enter at the age of thirty-two in the second Landwehr, or Landwehr of the second summons (des zweiten aufgebots.) They are called out only for a very brief service once a year, and they can not at any time be ordered out of the country, but continue to form a part of the second Landwehr until they are thirty nine years of age.
III. After the age of thirty-nine a Prussian subject belongs to the last reserve or Landsturm, and can only be summoned to service in arms upon a general raising, so to say, of the whole population, when the country is actually invaded by the enemy.
With the standing army, the center of the system, all the other forces are kept in close connection. For every regiment of the standing army there is a corresponding regiment of Landwehr, and the two together form one brigade. In the local distribution, every village and hamlet of the Prussian dominions belongs to a certain 283 regiment of Landwehr, serving with a certain regiment of the army, and belonging accordingly to one of the nine army corps.
Such is the military organization, which, from the important part played in it by the Landwehr, is sometimes termed the Prussian Landwehr system. The history of its formation is remarkable, and the circumstances which led to its creation helped also to create the very peculiar education of the army.
The Prussian Landwehr or militia is not of modern origin; in its form at least it is but a revival of the old feudal military organization, so far as that consisted of raising the country en masse, instead of keeping up a permanent, trained, and limited military force. Landwehr or Landsturm2 was the old German name for this feudal array, before the system of standing armies was begun in Europe by Charles VII. of France, with his Scotch regiments. It was possibly the failure of the trained Prussian armies—long reputed the models of military discipline—in the attack upon France in 1792, and still more signally at Auerstadt and Jena, which partly led to the revival of the Landwehr as the peculiar national force of Prussia. The means by which Stein, and after his expulsion, Scharnhorst, called it into activity, was a master stroke of policy under the existing difficulties of the country. The following outline may be sufficient to explain its effects upon education.
The condition which Napoleon had exacted at Tilsit—a reduction of the standing army from 200,000 to 40,000 men—would have lowered Prussia at once to the rank of a second-rate power. It was adroitly evaded by the plan of keeping only 40,000 men in arms at one and the same time, disbanding these as soon as they were disciplined, and replacing them constantly by fresh bodies. Thus the whole population of the country was ready to rise in 1813, after the crisis of Napoleon’s retreat from Russia. The plan was chiefly due to the genius of Scharnhorst, whose early death deprived Prussia of her greatest scientific soldier. The Landwehr then proved itself a most efficient force, though its success was promoted by the national enthusiasm, which must prevent our taking such a period as a criterion of its permanent military working. Since that time it has continued to be the national army of the country.
We were assured that this peculiarity of the Prussian army system, by which almost every man in the country serves in his turn in the ranks, has had a tendency to improve the education of the officers. It seems to have been felt that the officers would not retain the respect of intelligent privates unless they kept ahead of 284 them in education. And this impression appears to have been the cause of the royal edicts passed in 1816, by which it was required that every Prussian officer should pass two examinations before receiving his commission, one to test his general education, and the other his professional knowledge.
The Prussian system of military education stands in close connection with the general education of the country, just as the Prussian military organization is the peculiar creation of that country’s history. And the greatest improvements in the army and in its scientific teaching have been made at those remarkable periods when we should most naturally have looked for them—the time of Frederick the Great and the Liberation war of 1813-1814.
The leading principles of Prussian military education consist, first, in requiring from every officer in the army proof of a fair general education before his entrance, and of a fair military education afterwards. Secondly, they encourage a higher military education in a senior school, which has almost exclusively the privilege of supplying the staff.
In this requirement of a fair education, both general and military, universally from its officers, Prussia stands alone among the great military nations of Europe, and this honorable distinction is in a great measure the result of the diffused system of education throughout the country, and of the plan adopted by Stein and Scharnhorst, to make the officers the leaders of the army both in education and in military science.
The military schools of Germany may be said to have begun with the Reformation wars. Some such were founded by Maurice of Saxony, the great political and military genius of Germany in that century; the example was soon imitated in Baden, Silesia, and Brunswick, and a curious sketch of military education, by the hand of Duke Albert of Brandenburg, has been lately published from the Berlin archives, in which theology and mathematics hold the two most important places.
The first school of any real importance was founded in Colberg, by the great elector, Frederick William, in 1653. This had considerable success, and both his successors, King Frederick and Frederick William I., improved it greatly, and finally transferred it to Berlin. It was the time (about 1705, 1706,) of the great advance in military engineering under Vauban and Coehorn, and a school 285 for engineering was founded, in which some of their pupils had a great share. The first Prussian trigonometrical survey also dates as early as 1702; that of England was not begun till 1784. It may indeed be said that the scientific arms began to take a more favorable place in the Prussian army about this time. They have held, and even still hold in some respects, a less distinguished position in Germany than in France, England, or Sardinia; and the first instance of an artilleryman being made a general, was in the reign of Frederick William I.
On Frederick the Great’s accession he found several military schools in existence. These had been chiefly founded by his eccentric father, who had a passion for Cadet Houses and cadets, and their object is said to have been to supply an education to the nobility, who at that time were very ill-taught in Germany. After Frederick’s first wars, his own attention was much occupied by the need of a better military education, and he continued to work at the subject very zealously till his death. His example on this point, as that of a great military authority, is most instructive, since his object was at first only to educate cadets before their entrance to the army, but was afterwards extended to completing the education of officers already on active service. His views on the last point were carried out by Scharnhorst. They were the germ of the present Prussian military education.
It is curious to observe that the Austrian Succession War and the Seven Years’ War, the first great wars since Louis XIV., and which broke the Thirty Years’ Peace of the eighteenth century, are periods at which scientific military education made a great step in Europe. A Treatise of Marshal Count Beausobre’s on the subject first showed the existing want; it is entitled “Utilité d’une Ecole et d’une Académie Militaire, avec des Notes, ou l’on traite des Ecoles Militaires de l’Antiquité”. It attracted great attention on its appearance. Most of the military academies properly so called, date from about this time. The earliest warrant for Woolwich, dates in 1741. The Theresianum of Maria Theresa was begun at Vienna about 1748. The first French school was the celebrated engineer school of Mezières founded in 1749. This was soon followed by the old military school of Paris in 1751, and by the school for artillery at La Fère in 1756. Frederick’s own Ritter Academie dates from 1764.
Frederick began this institution with his usual energy, immediately on the close of the Seven Years’ War. “My fire is quenched,” he writes, “and I am now only busied in improving the practice of 286 my men. * * * * The position of the common soldier may be left as it was before the war began, but the position of the officers is a point to which I am devoting my utmost care. In order in future to quicken their attention whilst on service, and to form their judgment, I have ordered them to receive instruction in the art of war, and they will be obliged to give reasons for all they do. Such a plan, as you will see, my dear friend, will not answer with every one; still out of the whole body we shall certainly form some men and officers, who will not merely have their patent as generals to show, (die nicht blos patentirte Generale vorstellen,) but some capacity for the office as well.” He had, in fact, seen with great admiration the improved military school recently founded by Maria Theresa; and as it is best on such points to let this great authority be heard for himself, we shall quote his own words:—
“In order to neglect nothing bearing on the state of the army, the Empress founded near Vienna, (at Wiener Neustadt,) a college where young nobles were instructed in the whole art of war. She drew to it distinguished professors of geometry, fortification, geography, and history, who formed there able pupils, and made it a complete nursery for the army. By means of her care, the military service attained in that country a degree of perfection which it had never reached under the Emperors of the House of Austria; and a woman thus carried out designs worthy of a great man.”
His letters show that he contemplated an improved school, and he says to D’Alembert: “I send you the rules of my academy. As the plan is new, I beg you to give me your honest opinion of it.” Accordingly, the academy was founded. We will describe it in his own words:—
“An academy was founded at the same time, in which were placed those of the cadets who showed most genius. The king himself drew up the rules for its form, and gave it a plan of instruction, which stated the objects of the studies of the pupils, and of the education they were to receive. Professors were chosen from the ablest men who could be found in Europe, and fifteen young gentlemen were educated under the eyes of five instructors. Their whole education tended to form their judgment. The academy was successful, and supplied able pupils, who received appointments in the army.”4
This school, which was opened in 1765, was Frederick’s only foundation of the kind; he was occupied with it incessantly. The plan of its studies was drawn up by his own hand, and we have 287 many of his letters of encouragement to its pupils or professors. Whether he is writing to Voltaire, Condorcet, or “My Lord Marischal” Keith, he constantly shows both his well-known attention to the economy of his new school, and a paternal interest in his young cadets and their teachers.5
Accordingly, both in professors and pupils, the new institution soon gained an European character. Out of its twenty first directors, no less than ten were distinguished foreigners; one of the best teachers at Berlin was D’Antoni, a distinguished soldier from the Turin institution and the artillery school at Alessandria—schools which were still the representatives of the military science of the great Italian generals, of the Duke of Parma, of Spinola, and Montecuculi.
This institution was still, as it would appear, upon the old principle of juvenile army schools, nor does Frederick seem to have set on foot any school for officers after entering the service. But he evidently felt strongly the need of improving his staff officers, and of raising the science of his artillery and engineers. Thus we find him referring to the French engineer school at Meziéres; and he endeavored to raise the intelligence and education of his officers. It may, however, be suspected that the spirit of the “Potsdamer Côterie,” as it was called, became gradually, and particularly after Frederick’s death, too literary and speculative to suit the rough work of war; and it may, perhaps, be thought that some defect of this kind is still traceable in the excessive amount of teaching and the abstract nature of some of the subjects taught in the staff school at Berlin.
Such seems to have been the opinion of Scharnhorst, the virtual author of the present system of army education, and whom the Prussians still regard as their first authority on that subject. “Instruction is given,” he says, “at the military school in all literature, in philosophy, and in many various sciences. Frederick seems to have wished to lay in it the foundation of the education at once of an officer and of a learned man. Few men, however, are able to excel at once in various branches of human knowledge, and the surest means to do so in one is not to attempt it in many.”
288We have referred to Frederick and his school rather to show the interest he felt in military education, than because his institution was very important. Military education was still very imperfect, and it completely languished in Prussia till Scharnhorst established it on its present footing.
Scharnhorst was himself an Hanoverian, but entered the Prussian service, and had seen by experience the defects of their system in the campaigns of 1792, 1793, and 1805. He had long devoted especial attention to military education and to all the scientific part of his profession. Along with Blucher and Gneisenau, he was considered one of the first generals of the army, and, on the exhaustion of Prussia after Jena, he was selected to remodel its whole system. He did not live to complete his work, having been killed early in 1812; but his statue near the bridge at Berlin, remarkable for its noble and thoughtful expression, records the gratitude of Prussia to its greatest scientific soldier.
“The perfection of the French military organization,” says Mr. Alison, appeared to him in painful contrast beside the numerous defects of that over which he presided. * * * * Boldly applying to the military department the admirable principles by which Stein had secured the affections of the burgher classes, he threw open to the whole of the citizens the higher grades of the army, from which they had been hitherto excluded. * * * * And every department of the public service underwent his searching eye.”
The work began with the commission of 1807, of which both Stein and Scharnhorst were members. And the regulation of 1808 laid down the principle broadly, that the only claim to an officer’s commission must be, “in time of peace, knowledge and education; in war, courage and conduct.”
On these principles, during the next three years, Scharnhorst laid the foundations of the present education. He abolished most of the existing juvenile schools, with the exception only of the Cadet Houses, intended almost solely for the sons of officers. He changed the previous war school into a sort of school d’Elite, consisting of a senior and junior department, in which the younger soldiers of all arms were to be imbued with such knowledge as might give them a scientific interest in their profession, and in which senior officers (also of all arms) were to have a higher course of a similar nature, success in which was to form a recommendation for employment on the staff. He began the plan of the division schools, where all candidates for commissions, but not yet officers, might conduct their 289 military studies along with the practice of their profession. Its idea was to make some military study necessary, and successful study honorable, in the army. Finally, he began the present system of careful examination on entering the army.
The following historical notice of the origin and successive changes of the division schools is taken from a communication by Col. Von Holleben, and a member of the General Inspection of Military Instruction to the English Commission.
The cabinet order of the 6th of August, 1808, laid the foundation of the present system of military education. It regulates the appointment of Swordknot ensigns and the selection of officers, and declares that the only title to an officer’s commission in time of peace shall be professional knowledge and education, and in time of war distinguished valor and ability.
The cabinet order of the 6th of August, 1808, could only come gradually into operation; the system of military examinations had to be created, and the educational institutions had to receive a new organization, under the superintendence of a general officer. Four provincial boards of examination were successively established, and on the 1st December, 1809, a body of instructions, still very vague and general, was issued for their guidance.
A cabinet order of the 3rd of May, 1810, remodeled the military schools, directing, in addition to the cadet schools at Berlin and Stolpe, the formation of three military schools for Swordknot ensigns, (Portepée-Fähnriche,) one at Berlin for the marches (Die Marken,) and Pomerania, a second at Königsberg, for east and west Prussia, and a third at Breslau, for Silesia; and the formation of a military school at Berlin for officers. All these institutions were placed under the general superintendence of Lieutenant-General Von Diericke, who had also the special superintendence of the boards of examination. A board of military studies was created and intrusted, under his control, with the task of carrying the regulations into effect.
Before, however, the new institutions attained to any stability the war years of 1813-14-15 intervened, and the operations of the board of examinations ceased.
Soon after the conclusion of peace directions were given that the examinations should recommence, with an equitable consideration of the claims of the Landwehr officers, ensigns, and other young persons who had grown up during the war.
At first there was only one board of examination at Berlin, with large discretionary powers as to their mode of procedure. In April, 290 1816, a cabinet order was issued to form boards of examination for the Swordknot at every brigade, as the present divisions were then called, besides the existing board at Berlin, for the examination for an officer’s commission.
Contemporaneously with the nine boards of examination, the board of military studies, by an order of January, 1816, directed the establishment of schools for every brigade, and attempted to gradually regulate the instruction they gave. The schools contained two classes, the lower to prepare candidates for the Swordknot, the higher to prepare candidates for the rank of officer. As, however, no standard of attainment was required for admission into the schools, their instruction had to commence with the first elements, and was charged with more work than it could perform. The weaker scholars stayed two, three, or more years in the lower class, and the education of the better scholars was impeded.
During this and the following period the authority over the examination boards (the Præsidium,) was distinct from that over the schools, (the general inspection,) and it was not till later that both authorities were vested in a single person. This division of powers, intended to secure the independence and impartiality of the examinations, led to the result that the two authorities were occasionally led, from a difference of principles, to labor in different directions. Still, in the infancy of military education, the rivalry it occasioned, was favorable to a rapidity of development.
An order of the 16th of March, 1827, added French to the studies for the ensigns’ examination, and fixed a higher standard of attainments in military sciences for the officers’ examination.
Nearly at the same time, a cabinet order of the 27th of March, 1827, directed that there should be only one class for Swordknot ensigns in the division schools, and that after October, 1829, the candidate should obtain a testimonial of fitness for the rank of Swordknot ensign previous to admission as a student.
Accordingly young men had to be prepared for examination for the Swordknot at their entrance into their corps, or might prepare themselves by private studies and instruction during their service.
The task of the schools, still very comprehensive embracing all the liberal sciences as well as the military, was accomplished during this period in two courses of nine months, in a higher and a lower class.
A cabinet order of the 31st of January, 1837, introduced the entrance examination, instead of the examination for the Swordknot, 291 being declared that every candidate for the commission of an officer, after his reception into a corps, should prove in an examination his possession of the knowledge requisite for a Swordknot ensigncy before his actual appointment. At the same time a regulation of the ministry of war, of the 17th of December 1836, remodeled and more precisely defined both the entrance (Swordknot ensign) examination, and that for the commission of an officer. This regulation, while it essentially modified the instruction given at the division schools, furnished them at the same time with a more certain clue for their guidance. The preparation of youths for the Swordknot examination during their service in the corps was discontinued. But the standard of the entrance examination was still too low, requiring only a small portion of the branches of a general liberal education, and that not in the shape in which they are taught in our gymnasia. Hence the evil result, that young men, previous to their entrance into a corps, had usually to prepare for the military profession at private institutions instead of at the gymnasia, and nevertheless brought with them a very defective amount of preparatory training; on the other hand, the demands of the officers’ examination were very multifarious. It still required the general scholastic sciences by way of formal education, and the military sciences as a special education for the military profession. Thus the task of the division schools continued overwhelming, and an aim was set before them which they could not attain.
A regulation of the 4th of February, 1844, reformed simultaneously the whole system of military examination and education.
The views which guided these reforms, the improvements and advantages which were hoped to be thereby obtained, were, in general, the following:—
1. The military profession, like every other, requires a general school education intended generally to cultivate the mind, distinct from the subsequent special and professional education for which the former is the necessary groundwork.
The former is tested in the examination for the Swordknot, the latter in the officers’ examination.
2. The preparatory education required from the candidate for a Swordknot is the function of the ordinary schools of the country. Nothing but what they can impart is required, and from consideration of the youthful age of the candidates (seventeen years,) the amount of preparatory training required is not the attainment of the highest class of the gymnasium, but only that required for admission into the Prima.
2923. The required previous training not only gives the candidate a more certain basis for his subsequent military education, but, as being the groundwork of all professions, leaves him afterwards at liberty to cultivate the special knowledge requisite for any profession that he may prefer.
4. The division schools are freed from a multifarious course of instruction in the scholastic sciences, a task beyond their power: the result of which was that the majority of scholars were very little advanced in formal and general education, and but superficially grounded in the elements of the professional sciences, while they spent years in being drilled for an examination, instead of being educated for life.
5. If the division schools have an able staff of military teachers, they can give a good professional education. The younger officers, even if they never received the full training of the gymnasium, may still, by their professional training, raise themselves above their subordinates, (a class in Prussia often highly educated,) and are started with an excellent preparation for their professional career.
6. By the amount of liberal education required in the examination for the Swordknot, the friends of those destined for the military profession are admonished to provide them an education equal to that received by the members of other professions.
7. By the method pursued in the examinations the power is retained of raising or lowering the standard according to circumstances. When the supply of officers is deficient, the standard can be lowered; at other times, as at present, it may be raised. Since the above-mentioned regulations, the following essential alterations have been introduced:—
1. The examination for the Swordknot is again placed after admission into the corps, but no one can be admitted to attend the division schools without a testimonial of fitness for the rank of Swordknot ensign.
2. A testimonial of fitness for the university, i.e., to have passed the abiturient examination, dispenses with the examination for the Swordknot. In consequence of this rule fifty abiturients on an average annually enter the army. These, as well as the selectaner of the cadet corps, must be considered, in point of scientific education, an excellent supply of officers. From the powerful impulse that military instruction has received in the last fifty years, it may be expected that the time is not distant when the candidate for an officer’s commission, instead of passing the Swordknot examination, 293 will have to bring the finished training of the gymnasium; in other words, to have passed the abiturient examination.
3. Instead of the seventeen division schools there are now by the regulation of 1844, only nine, and a further reduction of their number to four or three is contemplated, with an improvement of the staff of teachers and a stricter supervision of the scholars.
The standing army composed in the manner and under the circumstances already described, is supplied with officers who must have a good general education, and have served in the ranks, or have obtained a certain amount of professional instruction. The usual course is as follows:—
Young men obtain a nomination from the colonel of a regiment. This nomination admits them merely to service in the regiment as privates, with a recognition of their being candidates, aspiranten or aspirants, for the rank of officer. Before they obtain that rank, the following conditions must be fulfilled. They must pass an examination in the common subjects of a good general education, such as the sons of well-born or wealthy civilians may be supposed to receive. They must serve six or nine months with the troops; they must attend nine months at a division school, or twelve months in the artillery and engineer school, where they receive a course of special military instruction; and they must pass an examination in professional subjects before a board sitting at Berlin. They are then eligible for a vacancy. In order to obtain a commission they require further the recommendation of the officers of the regiment.
It is obvious to remark, that in obtaining a commission in the Prussian service the candidate’s chance depends greatly on the recommendation of the colonel and the after assent of the officers. The effect of this is to maintain an exclusive character in the army. Above two-thirds of the commissions are obtained by the course described above; the remainder are granted to those who pass through the cadet schools.
Of these there are five altogether, four junior establishments, situated in certain provincial towns, and one senior or upper school at Berlin, to which the others are merely preparatory. They are all supported by the state; mainly for the purpose of educating the children of meritorious officers in want of assistance; but they are also open to others. With the exception of the highest class of the upper school, the Selecta above mentioned, the instruction given is of a perfectly general character, and there is no obligation even for 294 those who have received the most ample pecuniary assistance to enter the military profession. The discipline, however, is military, the teachers are mostly officers, the pupils are regularly drilled, and most of them actually go into the army. This they do in ordinary cases without going through the highest or select class in which professional instruction is given; they merely pass the same preliminary examination as the candidates nominated by the colonels of regiments; they enter the army without their commissions, and have to obtain them in the same manner as the other candidates, by serving six or nine months with the troops, and by following their professional studies in the division or artillery and engineer schools, and by passing the officers’ or second examination before the examining board at Berlin. Those who do remain to go through the highest or select class receive their professional instruction in it instead of in the division or artillery and engineer schools, and they are examined for their commissions by the board while still at the cadet school.
Thus, in the course usually followed, three requisites are exacted in Prussia before a commission is given; first, a good general education; secondly, some actual military service; and, thirdly, professional knowledge gained by something like a year of military study. But the military service is not required from the upper thirty students of the Selecta of the Cadet House.
It will be well to mention, at the commencement, the names of the two examinations. The first, the preliminary examination, merely testing the general education, admits to a particular grade among non-commissioned officers; those holding it rank between sergeants and corporals, and in consideration of their being candidates (aspiranten) for a commission wear a different sword-knot, and hence have the name of Swordknot ensign or Portepée-fähnrich. The first or preliminary examination is accordingly called the Portepée-fähnrich examination. The second, the professional one, is the officers’ examination, for the commission of second lieutenant.
These two examinations, for the grade of Portepée-fähnrich and for the officer’s commission, are either conducted or controlled by the Supreme Military examinations Board, (Ober-Militair-Examinations-Commission) in Berlin, a body partly composed of military officers, partly of eminent civilians.
The various examining boards, the central and the local ones, which conduct these two examinations, are quite independent of the military schools, and were formerly presided over by a different 295 head; but in order that the system should be uniformly carried out, and as Colonel von Holleben expresses it, that “the examinations should exercise a salutary influence on education, and that their standard should be adjusted to the capacities of the schools,” they have now been placed under the same control as the military schools.
The whole department of military education is therefore now under the control of a single high functionary, bearing the title of the general inspector of the military schools, military education, and military studies (das Militair Erziehungs-und-Bildungswesen,) who reports direct to the king on all subjects relating to examination and instruction. He submits his proposals on matters of administration to the minister of war, who issues the necessary orders to the boards charged with the financial control of the various schools.
The general inspector is assisted by a supreme council or board of military studies, composed of field officers of the general staff and of the special arms, the directors of the war school, of the supreme board of military examinations, of the artillery and engineers school, the commander of the cadet corps, some of the consultative assessors (Vortragenden Räthen,) of the minister of worship, and of individuals selected from the general body of learned men (professors.)
The principal military schools of Prussia may be divided into five classes:—
I. Those which give a good general education to the sons of meritorious officers, but which are open to others, such as—
1. The Cadet Houses or Cadet Schools (Cadetten-Häuser,) which supply a certain amount of instruction in military professional subjects.
II. Such as supply professional instruction to young men who are candidates for the rank of officer in the Prussian army. These are—
2. The Division Schools (Divisions-Schule,) nine in number, one for each army corps.
3. The artillery and engineers schools in Berlin.
III. Those which afford professional instruction to officers already in the service, to qualify them for special duty, limited to—
4. The War School or Staff School (Kriegs-Schule,) in Berlin.
IV. Those intended to give special instruction for the training of non-commissioned officers and men. Such as—
2965. The School Division or Non-commissioned Officers School (Schulabtheilung,) at Potsdam.
6. The Regimental Schools (Regiments und Bataillons Schulen.)
7. The Music and the Swimming Schools, and the Central Gymnastic School in Berlin (Central Turn-Anstalt.)
8. The Veterinary School (Thierarzeneischule.)
V. Those intended to give gratuitous education to the children, boys and girls, of non-commissioned officers and soldiers, whose parents are too poor to provide for them. Such are,—
9. The Military Orphan Houses (Militair-Waisenhäuser,) at Annaburg, Potsdam, and Pretzsch.
10. The schools for soldiers’ children.
In addition to these might be mentioned the Medical Institution, particularly the Frederick-William’s Institution at Berlin, and the Knight Academy (Ritter-Academie,) or Noble School, in Liegnitz.
The annual cost to the state of the military schools in 1856, appears to be as follows:—
NAME. | Salaries. Dollars.* |
Other Expenses. Dollars.* |
Total Dollars.* |
Number of Students. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Department of General Inspector, | 5,872 | 250 | 5,922 | . . |
Supreme Military Examinations Board, | 5,400 | 300 | 5,700 | . . |
Board of Military Studies, | 848 | . . | 848 | . . |
Board of examiners for Artillery Lieutenants, | . . | 60 | 60 | . . |
Cadet House at Berlin, | 12,944 | . . | 12,944 | 420 |
Cadet House at Potsdam, | 15,805 | 24,285 | 40,090 | 200 |
Cadet House at Culm, | 15,738 | 18,436 | 34,174 | 160 |
Cadet House at Wahlstatt, | 16,253 | 22,706 | 38,959 | 200 |
Cadet House at Bensberg, | 15,935 | 24,853 | 40,788 | 200 |
General War or Staff School, | 18,552 | 3,013 | 21,565 | 120 |
United Artillery and Engineers School, | 15,025 | 1,910 | 16,935 | 240 |
Veterinary School, | 8,514 | 4,165 | 12,679 | . . |
Gymnastic School, | 4,046 | 720 | 4,766 | . . |
Division Schools, | 10,800 | 6,195 | 16,995 | Variable |
Division Libraries, | 400 | 1,200 | 1,600 | . . |
Miscellaneous, | . . | 680 | 680 | . . |
Totals, | 146,132 | 108,777 | 254,909 |
* A Prussian dollar is equal to three shillings of English money, and 70 cents of United States currency.
The sums will come out right if the first-row total is corrected to 6122, and 4 is added to some item in the middle column (and hence the third-column total).
Or about £38,236 annually, exclusive of the charge for buildings and repairs, and the original outlay for their first establishment. The pay of the student officers, and the pay and allowances of the military professors and teachers, are, however, drawn from their corps, so that the above-mentioned seems only to include the extra pay granted to the professors, &c.
The expenses of the Non-commissioned Officers School, of the military orphan houses, and of the schools for soldiers’ children, are not given in the printed paper from which these details have been extracted.
297Two examinations, one in general and the other in professional knowledge are required of all candidates for a commission upon or soon after their entrance into the army, unless they can bring a certificate of having successfully completed the regular course of a gymnasium, in which case they are excused from the first.
These two examinations, through which alone admission is obtained to the rank of officer, are so important, and hold so prominent a position in the Prussian military system, that we propose to preface our account of the nature and extent of each of these examinations by a short tabular statement of the circumstances under which the candidates for each arm of the service respectively pass them.
The following Candidates offer themselves, | for the Preliminary, Ensign’s, or Portepée-fähnrich Examination, | for the Second or Officer’s Examination (in all cases before the Supreme Board at Berlin.) |
---|---|---|
Those presented by the Colonels of Regiments, |
Before, after, or during (usually before) six months’ service with the Troops, before the local Division Board; |
After nine months’ military instruction in the Division School. |
Those coming at the usual time from the Cadet House (from the class called Prima,) |
On quitting the Cadet House, before the Supreme Board at Berlin; |
After six months’ service with the troops, and nine months’ military instruction in the Division School. |
Those who stay an extra year in the Special or Select class (Selecta) of the Cadet House, |
Before admission to the Special or Select class (Selecta,) before the Supreme Board at Berlin; |
On quitting the Cadet House, after one year’s instruction in the Select class Selecta. |
Those for the Artillery or Engineers, except when they came from the Special or Select class, (Selecta,) of the Cadet House, |
After nine months’ service with the Troops, and three months’ stay at the Artillery and Engineers School, before the Supreme Board at Berlin; |
After one year’s stay at the Artillery and Engineers School. |
According to a special law, any young man above seventeen and a half and under twenty-three years of age, whether he be a private or a corporal, if he has served six months in the army, and can obtain from the officers of his company a certificate of good conduct, attention, and knowledge of his profession, may claim to be 298 examined for the grade of ensign or (Portepée-fähnrich.) If he succeed in this examination, he is recognized as a candidate, an aspirant for a commission; but his prospect of obtaining a commission is subject to a variety of subsequent conditions.
In practice, a young man who aspires to a commission applies to the colonel of the regiment and usually obtains a nomination before he actually joins; and, as the examination is entirely of a civil character, he is usually glad to try and pass it at once. Having recently come from school, he feels probably better prepared than he is likely to be at any subsequent time: for on joining the corps, he will have for some time to conform to the life of a private soldier, to sleep and mess with the men, and to mount guard in his turn; and with the drill and exercises, and the marching and manoeuvring with the troops, he will have enough to occupy him to prevent his preparing for the examination. The two qualifications for the ensign’s grade are, the test of the examination and the six months’ service; but it appears to be indifferent in what order they are taken, whether service comes first and examination after, or vice versâ.
The examinations take place quarterly, at the beginning of every January, April, July, and October. They are held in the great garrison towns by local military boards, consisting of a president and five examiners. Applications for permission to be examined must be made at least a fortnight before, and must be accompanied by certificates stating the candidate’s birth, parentage, &c.; certificates of diligence and good conduct from the schoolmasters or other teachers who have instructed him; and of bodily fitness from an army surgeon.
The local board of examiners is appointed by the general officer in command of the army corps, the centers of examination corresponding in present practice with the localities assigned to the division or army-corps schools, nine in number, presently to be described.
The first part of the examination is on paper; a vivâ voce examination follows.
On paper the young men have to write three themes or compositions in German, to translate two passages, one from Livy or Sallust, another from Cæsar’s Commentaries, Cicero’s Epistles, or Quintus Curtius; to translate sixteen or twenty lines from French into German, and two passages, a longer and a shorter, from German into French. They have one question in common arithmetic, one in equations, progressions, or logarithms; one in geometry, one in 299 trigonometry; they have one in mathematical or physical geography, one in the general geography of Europe and its colonies, and one in that of Germany and Prussia. There is one question in Greek or Roman history; one in the earlier German history; one in modern; and one in Prussian history. They have also to show that they are acquainted with the common conventional signs used in representing the surface of the earth in maps; and they have to copy a small map of a group of hills.
The time allowed for each question is about three quarters of an hour or an hour; for each German theme, it is as much as an hour and a half or two hours.
The questions are of a comprehensive character; e.g. Give a history of the campaign of 1813, or of the life of Alexander the Great; enumerate the rivers flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, with the principal towns situated upon each of them. The German themes are, first, a curriculum vitæ, an account of the candidate’s life, which is, however, not supposed to count in the result, and is merely for the examiner’s information; second and third, two themes on some sentence or proverb, for the first of which the examiner assists the candidate by vivâ voce questions and corrections in drawing up the preliminary outline of arrangement; for the second he is left entirely to himself.
There is a subsequent vivâ voce examination in all the subjects, drawing excepted. The candidates are taken in small classes, not exceeding seven in number, and are examined together, but not in public.
The results of the examination are considered according to the system of predicates or epithets, sometimes also called censures. The candidates’ answers are characterized as excellent (vorzüglich,) good (gut,) satisfactory (befriedigend,) insufficient (nicht hinreichend,) or unsatisfactory (ungenügend.) Numerical values are attached to each of these epithets; “excellent” is marked with 9; “unsatisfactory” counts as 1; and according to the amount of importance attached to the different subjects the marks thus given are multiplied by a higher or lower number, by 5 in one case, by 3 or by 1 in others. German, Latin, and mathematics have all the highest estimate of 5, and are each five times more important than drawing, which is marked by 1; geography, history, and French, are each valued at 3. A young man who gets the predicate “excellent,” in German, will receive 45 marks, his 9 being multiplied by 5; whereas the same predicate for history would obtain him only 15, and in drawing only 5 marks.
300German, | 5 | |
Latin, | 5 | Total, 25. |
Mathematics, | 5 | |
History, | 3 | |
Geography, | 3 | |
French, | 3 | |
Drawing, | 1 |
A report is then drawn up, and according to the marks or predicates, the candidates are pronounced as admissible with distinction, admissible with honor, or simply admissible; or their re-examination after six months, their re-examination after a year, or their absolute rejection, is recommended.
This report, with the candidates’ certificates, is forwarded to the supreme military examinations board at Berlin, and, if approved by them, is submitted in their quarterly report to the king; and the result, when sanctioned by him, is communicated to the respective corps.
The candidates are all informed not only of the practical result, but also of the particulars of their examinations; they are told in what subjects they have failed, and in what they have succeeded. The candidates can not, under any circumstances, try more than three times.
The young men who pass, are thus, so far as their qualification in point of knowledge is concerned, pronounced admissible to the ensign’s grade. They have of course to complete their six months’ service with the troops. Yet even when this is completed, a vacancy in the list of ensigns must be waited for, and months may pass before the aspirant receives the distinctive badge, the special Sword-knot, which marks his superiority to the corporals, and shows that he has gained the first step that leads to a commission.
The examination that has now been described is obviously one for which preparation may be made in the common public schools, and under the usual civilian teachers. A young man of seventeen need not have been positively destined to the military profession, nor have gone through special preparation for any length of time beforehand. The boards of local military examiners are content to take them as they are offered, inquiry only being made as to their birth and connections, and their previous behavior at school or under tuition.
In fact, those who have passed successfully through the full course of a school which prepares for the universities (a gymnasium,) are excused the ensign’s examination. The certificate they have received on going away from school, upon the abiturient’s or leaving examination, as it is called, is considered quite sufficient; except in 301 the case of candidates for the artillery or engineers, who are expected to show greater proficiency in mathematics; and certainly a boy in the head class of a gymnasium ought to be able to pass the preliminary examination with perfect ease and with credit. The amount of knowledge required and the particular subjects selected are not those of the first, and are scarcely those of the second class of a gymnasium; and the assertion was even made that a boy from the upper third class might very well hope to pass for an ensigncy. Possibly a little extra tuition from the preparatory establishments, which are said to have sprung up with the special function of “fabricating Fähnrichs” might in this instance be required.
The official programme is here given, and may be compared with the studies prescribed in the upper classes of the Cadet House at Berlin, (see the account of that school.)
1. In their own language, good legible handwriting, a correct style, free from orthographical or grammatical mistakes, facility of expression in writing and speaking; some evidence of a knowledge of German literature.
2. In Latin, facility in understanding the Latin prose writers ordinarily read in the second class of a Prussian gymnasium. A written exercise in translation from Latin into German; grammatical analysis of some passages.
3. In French, facility in reading and in translating from German into French, and French into German, grammatical analysis of French sentences, and a knowledge of syntax.
4. Mathematics:—
(a.) Arithmetic and Algebra;—familiarity with the ordinary rules for the extraction of the square root of whole numbers and of fractions; Proportion and its applications including questions in Partnership and Compound Proportion; the theory of powers and roots, with integral and fractional, positive and negative exponents. Equations of the two first degrees, with one or more unknown quantities; Logarithms, Logarithmic Equations, Arithmetical and Geometrical Progression, and practice in the application of the various theories.
(b.) The complete elements of Plane Geometry, measuration of rectilineal figures and of the circle, transformation and division of figures; the first elements of the application of Algebra to Geometry.
(c.) Plane Trigonometry, Trigonometrical functions and their Logarithms. Use of trigonometrical tables. Calculation of particular cases of triangles, regular polygons, and segments of circles.
In consideration of the especial importance of this discipline for officers of the artillery and engineers, a higher predicate (i.e. a greater number of marks) will be required in the exercises of candidates for these two services; the knowledge expected in their case will be, though not more extensive, more thorough and deep.
5. Geography:—The general principles of Mathematical and Physical Geography, knowledge of our planetary system, of the motions of the Earth, and of the phenomena immediately dependent upon them. Readiness in drawing from memory the outlines of the more important countries, with their principal mountains, rivers, and cities. General outlines of Political Geography, in the case of the mere states out of Europe; a detailed account of the elements of European statistics, more particularly in the case of Germany and Prussia.
6. History:—A knowledge of the more remarkable events in the history of great nations, of the general connection, causes, and consequences of these events; a knowledge of the remarkable men of all such nations down to the present time. Special knowledge of the history of Greece, Rome, Germany, Prussia, with particular reference in this last case to its external growth, inner 302 development, and to the principal events of the most important wars since the middle of the eighteenth century.
7. Readiness in general drawing, and in constructing mathematical figures; some skill in drawing plans of positions and mountains, in the way of preparation for military plan drawing.
8. The candidate may, in addition, be examined in other subjects, in which his certificates show that he has been instructed; for example, in Natural Philosophy, so far as included in his previous course of instruction.
It must be remembered that either before or after this examination some months must be spent in actual service with the troops by all but the pupils belonging to the Selecta of the cadet school; and that nine months of study at the division and artillery and engineer schools intervenes before the officers examination takes place.
The second or final examination for a commission, which generally ensues when the work of the division school is over, is held in Berlin only, and is conducted immediately by the central commission, to which reference has so often been made—the supreme Military Examinations Board, the Ober-Militair-Examinations Commission. This board or commission, a list of the existing members of which is given in page 179, consists, for the purpose now in consideration, of a president and five examiners, selected from the larger number to examine candidates for commissions.
The examinations are held continually; two opportunities are afforded every year to the candidates sent from each of the various army corps. The requisite papers must be forwarded to the commission eight days at least beforehand, and the candidates must appear in Berlin, and take up their quarters in the buildings placed at the disposal of the board on the Friday preceding the day fixed for the examination. The examination usually begins on the following Monday, and lasts through the week. The expenses of the journey are allowed, except, perhaps, when the candidate comes up a second time.
The certificates to be presented are the following:—
1. The certificate of birth, age, parentage, &c. (This is called the Nationale.)
2. The Curriculum Vitæ, (an account of the circumstances of the candidates’s past life, his education, employment, &c., &c.)
3. The certificate that he has already passed through a previous examination (the Tentamen,) held by the authorities of the division school.
4. A certificate of conduct during his stay at the division school.
3035. A military drawing (Croquis,) with an attestation given by his instructor that it is the candidate’s own doing.
This examination, like the preliminary one, is partly on paper and partly oral. General directions are given that the examiners in both cases shall look mainly to the question whether the candidate has sufficient positive knowledge of his subjects, and capacity to explain and express himself, that mere lapses of memory shall not be regarded, and that natural endowments shall be principally looked to.
In the written examination, the candidate has four questions given him in what is called the knowledge or theory of arms (Waffenlehre,) including under that term all kinds of ammunition; three in tactics; one question in the rules and regulations which touch the duty of a subaltern officer; two questions in permanent and two in field fortification; one exercise in surveying, to test his acquaintance with the common instruments, and one to try his knowledge of the principles of plan drawing (Terrain-Darstellung;) while his general skill in military drawing is proved by his either copying a plan placed before him, or drawing one from a relief model of a mountainous district (nach Bergmodellen.)
There is a vivâ voce examination in all the subjects.
The commission meets once every month to consider the examinations held since their last meeting. The result is announced under the form of the predicates or epithets already more than once referred to. Honorable mention is accorded to an excellent examination, and mention to a good one. If there has been an unsatisfactory result in one of the subjects, the candidate may compensate for it by superiority in other subjects, but can only in this case be qualified as satisfactory (befriedigend,) and an adequate knowledge of “arms” and tactics is regarded as indispensable in candidates for the infantry or cavalry, and in “arms” and fortification in those for the artillery and engineers. No superior work in other subjects is allowed to make up for a deficiency in these.
If a candidate’s work is marked as insufficient (nicht hinreichend,) he is sent back for another half-year, and if he has done unsatisfactorily, for a complete year of additional study, with leave to appear for re-examination after that interval. In a case of re-examination, the two last predicates (nicht hinreichend and ungenügend) entail final rejection.
The report of the board is submitted to the king; the results are communicated to the various corps. The announcements sent to the candidates state the predicates assigned to the various portions of 304 their work. Those who have passed, receive certificates of being qualified for the second lieutenant’s commission:—
This rank, however, is not immediately granted. A vacancy may be long in occurring, and must be waited for. Promotion is given according to their seniority on the list of ensigns in the regiment. Another condition must also be satisfied. When a vacancy occurs, the senior ensign’s name can not be submitted to the king for his appointment without a document stating on the part of the officers of the regiment that he has the requisite knowledge of the duties of the service, and that they consider him worthy of admission amongst them (würdig in seine Mitte zu treten.) If the majority is opposed to his admission, the name of the next ensign in order of seniority is, without further discussion, brought forward; if a minority or merely some individual officers take exception, they state the grounds of their opinion, which are then submitted for consideration.6
Special merit in the examination may be, at the king’s pleasure, held a sufficient reason for promotion before all candidates examined at the same time.
The following is the programme of the studies, proficiency in which is expected of candidates at the second or officer’s examination:—
I. KNOWLEDGE OF ARMS AND MUNITIONS.
A. Of Gunpowder.
1. General views on gunpowder and its application.
2. Ingredients of gunpowder; its qualities and use.
3. Fabrication of the same; principles on which the manufacturing process is based.
4. Statement of the various kinds of gunpowder in use, and their distinctive qualities.
5. Of the ignition, combustion, and power of gunpowder.
6. Qualities of good powder; examination of the same:
a. According to their external characteristics.
b. According to force developed.
a. By the mortar eprouvette.
b. By the smaller eprouvette.
y. Or, in default of such instruments, by practical experiment.
7. Manner of preserving gunpowder; characteristics and treatment of damaged gunpowder.
8. Precautions to be taken in working with gunpowder, and transporting the same.
9. The most ignitible materials for percussion caps, and the like.
B. Of Artillery.
1. Classification of guns, according to species, calibre, and the kind of warfare for which they are intended. (Field, siege, and standing artillery.)
2. General qualities to be required of a properly constructed piece of ordnance.
3. Construction of the piece; description of the same according to the various kinds of guns, specifying the use of the different parts. (An exact statement in figures is only called for in reference to the length, weight, and diameter of the piece.)
a. Materials; qualities required of them; enumeration of the materials generally employed.
b. Interior construction of the piece; length of bore, chamber, windage, and touchhole; their influence on the range.
c. External construction of the piece; appliances for pointing and managing it, and connecting it with the gun-carriage.
4. Construction of the gun-carriages; enumeration of the different kinds of the same, according to the description of gun, its destination, and materials.
a. Specification of the principal component parts of the carriages.
b. Distinctive characteristics of the construction of the various denominations of carriages.
c. General principles for determining the proper construction of the same.
d. General notions relative to the proportion of the weight of the carriage to the piece.
5. Construction of the limbers.
a. Enumeration of the different kinds of limbers.
b. Principal component parts and distinctive characteristics of the construction of the various kinds of limbers.
c. General notions relative to the weight of the limber in proportion to the piece and the gun-carriage.
6. Statement of the various descriptions of wagons used by the field artillery, and their destination.
7. Ammunition; enumeration and description of the objects belonging to it. (Exact statements in figures are only required for the diameter and weight of the principal kinds of projectiles.)
a. Projectiles; statement of the species of projectiles used for the different kinds of guns, and their construction.
α. Bound shot, cannon ball, grape.
β. Shells; their various species.
γ. Light balls.
δ. Stones.
b. Charges; general description of them,
α. In field-pieces.
β. In heavy artillery.
c. Primings; enumeration and description of the various kinds of primings.
d. Other military fireworks; statement of the principal species, and their general construction.
e. Transport of ammunition by limbers and carts; packing of the same.
8. Moving and working the guns:
a. General notions on the working of field-pieces.
b. Different kinds of operations with field-pieces; unlimbering and limbering up.
c. Position of field-pieces in firing, with regard to effect, cover, and celerity of movement.
d. Principal manipulations in working the same.
α. Loading.
β. Pointing.
γ. Discharging; the process according to the different kinds of projectiles.
e. Ascertaining the efficiency of a gun previous to using it.
f. Momentary unserviceability of guns.
g. Expedients for repairing a disabled carriage.
9. Artillery practice.
a. Exposition of the theory of firing (as far as it can be elucidated by a knowledge of the elements of mathematics;) general notions concerning the curve of round and hollow shot, and the influence of the force of powder, of gravity, and of the air’s resistance upon their velocity; the curve after the first graze; trajectory of grape shot.
b. Classification and denomination of the various methods of firing or throwing projectiles.
c. Range; conditions on which it depends; its practical limits.
d. Effect of projectiles.
α. Probable accuracy of practice; circumstances on which it depends.
β. Force of the blow; circumstances on which it depends.
e. Recoil, jumping, or bouncing; explanation of such occurrences.
f. Application of the various descriptions of guns, projectiles, and methods of firing, according to the nature of the mark, the distance, the position of the adversary, and the ground.
C. Of Small Arms.
1. Classification and denomination of small arms.
2. General principles applied to the construction of the musket, the infantry and wall-piece rifle, the carbine, the cavalry rifle, the pistol, and the engineer musket (if the candidate is in the engineers.)
3. Description of their construction and arrangement in particular; enumeration of the separate parts (an exact statement of dimensions only required for the principal ones;) object and effect of the same.
4. Estimate of the practical utility of the various kinds of fire-arms as employed by one infantry and cavalry (no technical or theoretical investigation, but only practical remarks.)
5. Ammunition, as the ball, cartridge, and patch:
a. Its preparation.
α. In the usual manner.
β. In cases of need, in default of the usual implements.
b. Preserving, packing, and transporting it, both in carriages and by the soldier himself.
6. Management of small-arms:
a. Theory of firing (in its general scientific bearings, vide artillery) as applied to small-arms: repeated elucidation of the curve, line of metal, axis produced, and the relative position of these three lines in the different ranges.
b. Practical rules for loading, presenting, taking aim, and discharging, at different elevations of the adversary, and at different ranges.
7. Cleaning and preserving the arms.
D. Of Side-Arms.
1. Classification and denomination of the same:
a. Cavalry side-arms.
b. Lances.
2. Statement of the general principles on which their construction is based.
3. Examination of the state of side-arms on receiving them (within the limits mentioned above in C. 4.)
4. Effect and management of the same.
II. TACTICAL BRANCHES.
A. Army Organization.
1. General sketch of the organization of the Prussian army.
2. Characteristics of the different kinds of troops (arms;) their peculiarities 307 (their weapons are included under the former head,) their equipment and destination.
B. Elementary Tactics.
1. Account of the regulations concerning the distribution and formation of a battalion of infantry, a regiment of cavalry, and a battery, in line or column.
2. Formation of the different columns from the line, forming square, deploying and forming line, movement in advance, to the rear and to the flank, changing front and direction in line and column.
3. Formation of tirailleurs and skirmishers; posting, covering, moving, reinforcing, reducing, and relieving the same.
4. General rules on the conduct of the separate arms in action.
a. Engagement of infantry under fire and hand to order, in attack and defense.
b. Charge of cavalry, attack à la débandade, wheeling off of the fourth subdivisions (platoons,) skirmishing.
c. Employment and conduct of artillery in action.
5. General principles relative to the combined action of the different arms.
6. Tactical advantages of ground; level, hilly, open, close, uninclosed, and broken ground.
7. Attack and defense of localities, such as heights, woods, farm-buildings, villages, and defiles; false attacks, demonstrations.
C. Field Service.
1. Of Marches. General rules, method, and object; precautions, van and rear guards, covering parties.
2. Escort of transports of powder, provisions, and prisoners of war, in one’s own and in an enemy’s country.
3. Surprises, ambuscades, and reconnaissances.
4. Service in cantonments, camp, and bivouac, outposts, picquets, advanced picquets, reserve picquets (movable and stationary,) patrols.
5. Taking up quarters in ordinary marches and cantonments.
III. FORTIFICATIONS.
A. Field Works.
1. Object of breast-work and ditch profiles in plains. Plan of field-works; open works, salient angle, its dimensions.
2. Dead angle and dead ground. Removal of dead ground; flanking; line of defense; dimensions of re-entering angle.
3. Inclosed works; dimensions and space inclosed; works with salient angles only, and with both salient and re-entering angles.
4. Erection of works to be defended by artillery; firing en barbette, and through embrasures; platforms; magazines.
5. Communication with interior of inclosed works.
6. Artificial obstacles for strengthening field-works; requisites for their selection and application; method of construction; advanced ditches (demi and entire;) trous-de-loup; abattis; palisades and fraises; barriers; chevaux-de-frise; pickets; caltrops; harrows; sluices and inundations; fougasses; blockhouses; caponiers; double, single, and demi-caponiers à revers.
7. Strength of garrison of field-works.
8. Defilading, horizontal and vertical, of open and inclosed works; traverses and bonnettes.
9. Construction of small open and inclosed field-works; marking out; tracing; profiling; number and employment of workmen; excavating the ditch; formation and revetment of the slopes with sods, fascines, wicker-work, gabions, sand-bags, wood, or stones; selection, preparation, and application of the reveting materials. (Of the execution of the revetment only so much as may show 308 whether the examinee will be capable of undertaking the direction of such works in an efficient manner.)
10. Fortification of heights and defiles.
11. Object, general arrangement, and advantageous situation of a tête-de-pont.
12. Arrangements for the defense of woods, hedges, houses, churches, and churchyards.
13. Attack and defense of a redoubt; surprise; attack by open force.
14. Repairing and destroying roads, fords, and bridges, wooden and stone; construction of foot bridges, carriage bridges, bridges across swamps.
B. Permanent Fortifications.
1. Construction of a bastioned front in a plain, with ravelin, tenaille, and covered way, in plan and profile, after the first system of Vauban, with the improvements of Cormontaigne; name and destination of every single part, angle, and line.
2. Brief description of a regular attack upon a bastioned fortress; sketch of the preparations for attack; lines of circumvallation and contravallation.
Description of parallels, approaches, demi-parallels, and the duties of the infantry in them; saps, trench cavaliers; carrying the covered way, crowning the glacis, passage of the ditch, escalade of the rampart. These operations to be detailed according to their object, position, and arrangement, but without special reference to their technical execution.
General notions relative to the batteries of a besieging army, their position, object, calibre of guns, and practice.
3. Outlines of the system of defense of a fortress relative to the employment of infantry and cavalry in garrison, and of the standing artillery in arming the fortress and placing it in a state of defense against a regular attack or an attack by open force in all its stages.
Especial knowledge of the duties of infantry and cavalry in garrison, in guarding, occupying, and defending the works, and in sallies, required.
4. Historical sketch of an actual siege (on which the examinee has attended a lecture,) and the principles of the attack and defense of fortresses in general.
5. Account of the situation, form, arrangement, and object of some of the means employed for increasing the permanent strength of fortresses, exclusive of the more technical points.
a. The rampart of the body of the place. Angle of the bastions and its effect; length of flanks and faces; auxiliary flanks; empty and solid bastions attached and detached fausse-brayes.
The escarp, earthen wall, revetment, demi-revetment, simple crenneled wall, arched crenneled wall, revetment en décharge; perpendicular and parallel casemates.
b. The main ditch, dry, wet, and dry or inundated at pleasure; sluices, coffer-dams, reservoirs.
c. Outworks. Ravelin, tenaille, counterguards, cover-faces, envelopes, tenaillons, lunettes.
d. Advanced works. Simple and double tenaille; horn-work before a bastion or redoubt; crown-work; double crown-work; advanced ditch, with advanced covered way.
e. Detached works, open or inclosed at the gorge.
f. Interior works. Cuts inside the bastions; réduits; citadels.
6. Historical notions of the characteristics of some of the principal systems of fortification, e.g. the old and modern Italian, the old Dutch, Vauban’s second and third manner, the ideas of Coehorn, Rimpler, the French school, and that of Montalembert, compared with Vauban’s first system, but without statement of proportions; in addition to this, the characteristics of the latest Prussian fortifications, always with the omission of details more especially technical.
7. Modified methods of attack; surprise, assault, bombardment, blockade; explanation and statement of circumstances in which attacks of this kind are practicable.
309IV. SURVEYING AND DRAWING PLANS.
1. Knowledge of the instruments generally employed in military surveying, and their use.
a. Instruments for measuring and marking out straight lines;
viz.— Signals, bandrols, or jalons, common staves, picket posts, rods, measuring chains, measuring cord, the step.
b. Instruments used for protracting the lines measured, viz.—
The step measure, calliper compasses, beam compasses, dividing and reducing compasses.
c. Instruments for measuring and marking out horizontal angles: The
square, the plane table, caloptric compasses, the reflector, the sea-compass, the prismatic compass, the astrolabe:
d. Instruments for measuring vertical angles:
Lehmann’s dioptric rule, Schmalkalder’s holometer, the quadrant.
e. Leveling instruments:
The ordinary mason’s level, the spirit level, the water level, the spirit level à lunette, the plumb rule, Lehmann’s dioptric rule in connection with the plane table, placed horizontally, the surveyor’s rule, Schmalkalder’s holometer.
2. Operations in surveying with the plane table, astrolabe, reflector, and compass.
3. Topographical survey of a locality (theoretically and practically,) reconnoitring, geometrical triangulation, detailed survey.
4. Hasty or rough sketch of certain objects, and entire (but limited) sections of country.
5. Drawing plans.
a. Notion of the elements of topography; rising and sloping ground, running and standing waters, division of ground in a military point of view, and characteristics of the same; open, inclosed, elevated, hilly, mountainous, broken ground.
b. Theory of plan drawing.
α. The first elements of the science of projection, and the construction of instruments for measuring slopes.
β. Fundamental rules for plan drawing in general, and for drawing mountains in particular. Statement of the various angles of depression of inclined planes through mountainous regions.
γ. Of the horizontals, and the laws dependent upon them, relative to mountainous districts.
δ. On the laws of defiles.
ε. On ascertaining the difference of elevation, and drawing profiles.
ζ. View of the accessories of plan drawing; the choice of colors and of type, and the order in which the operations necessary for preparing a plan are performed.
c. Practical plan drawing from copies and models.
V. MILITARY COMPOSITION AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE SERVICE.
A. Exercises in Military Composition.
1. Drawing up reports on incidents connected with the service, and with the duties of a subaltern officer, directed to the military authorities and superior officers of every rank.
2. Instructions to subordinates.
3. Applications and memorials.
B. Acquaintance with the General Regulations of the Service.
1. The laws on disciplinary and military punishments.
2. The proceedings in courts-martial, drum-head courts-martial, and courts of honor.
The preparation for this second, severer, and professional test that has just been described, is usually obtained in the division schools, of which an account will shortly follow, and to which any young man once accepted as a candidate, who has served his six months with the troops, and has passed his preliminary or ensign examination, may be admitted, even though a vacancy has not yet occurred, and he has not yet received his definitive promotion to the ensign’s grade.
The actual military education of Prussia commences with the cadet houses, the schools intended for pupils before entering the army. They are divided into two classes, the junior and the senior. They can not indeed be called exclusively military schools, since the education which most of their pupils receive is one which fits them for civil professions, and is not specially military; and there is no obligation even on those who have received the largest amount of pecuniary assistance to enter the military profession when they leave the cadet house. The highest class, however, of the Upper Cadet School of Berlin, called the Selecta, receives strictly military teaching for a year, and the schools may fairly come under this denomination, as being mainly intended to educate the sons of officers who are in want of assistance, and as possessing a military discipline, uniform, and spirit.
These are five in number, four preparatory schools, and one a finishing institution; the four first in the provinces, at Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, the last in the capital itself. At the four junior schools, boys may be admitted at 10 or 11, and may remain till 15; at the upper school the ordinary stay is from 15 or 16 to 18 or 19.
The whole constitute together a single body, called the cadet corps. Boys may enter the school at Berlin on passing an examination, without previously attending one of the lower schools; but those who are sent up by the authorities from Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, are received without examination, being already members of the corps. A single officer exercises the command of the whole; and a single commission, of which the general inspector is chairman, regulates all matters relating to the admission of candidates into the body.
The whole number at present is between 1,100 and 1,200, of whom 420 are in the Upper School at Berlin, 205 in the Preparatory School at Potsdam, and 200 at each of the other houses.
The cadets are of two kinds, the King’s cadets and the Pensioners 311 or paying pupils; the former are 720 in number, the latter about 420. The pensioners pay 200 dollars (30l.) a year for board and instruction together; the King’s cadets are aided in various degrees accordingly to the following scale:—
240 pay 30 dollars (4l. 10s.) each. |
240 pay 60 dollars (9l.) each. |
240 pay 100 dollars (15l.) each. |
Foreigners are admissible at a yearly payment of 300 dollars (45l.,) and a few extra day scholars (Hospitanten,) when the classes are not too full, are received for 20 dollars a year (3l.)
The King’s cadetships are granted, according to the pecuniary circumstances of the applicants, to the children of officers of the standing army, or of the Landwehr, who have distinguished themselves or have been invalided in actual service in the field; to the children of non-commissioned officers who have in like manner distinguished themselves and received severe wounds in the service; and to those of any citizens who have performed any special service to the state. The sons of meritorious officers who have died in indigence or have retired upon pensions, the sons of indigent officers in general in the standing army, and the sons of meritorious non-commissioned officers of twenty-five years’ standing, are also in like manner eligible.
In very special cases of poverty, the supplementary payment is dispensed with altogether.
Pensioners are admitted from all classes and professions according to priority of application, and to their qualifications as shown by their examination. A great number of these are said to be the sons of officers, of those, namely, who are not in need of pecuniary assistance. And the number of the pensioners generally appears to be steadily on the increase. In the regulations printed in 1850, the places open for this class of cadets are stated to be only 216; at present, as has been seen, provision is made for something like double that number.
The four junior schools at Culm, Potsdam, Wahlstatt, and Bensberg, are all divided for purposes of instruction upon the same uniform plan into four classes, numbered up from six to three—Sexta at the bottom; Quinta; Quarta; and Tertia at the top. The upper school at Berlin succeeds with three classes, the second, the first, and the special or select—Secunda, Prima, and Selecta. Each of these classes, however, may contain any number of co-ordinate subdivisions, all taught the same subjects, and presumed to contain pupils of the same capacity. No teacher, it is considered, can satisfactorily 312 undertake to give a lesson to more than thirty at a time; and the Secunda at Berlin was thus parted out in the year ending March, 1856, into eight little sets of rather less than thirty, the Prima into six, and the Selecta into two.
The junior cadet house at Potsdam occupies four or five buildings a little way out of the town. The class-rooms are on the usual Prussian plan, not arranged for lectures to large, but for lessons with small numbers. One distinguishing feature is the character of the arrangements of the rooms up-stairs, in which the boys pass their time out of school hours. They are very comfortable chambers, perhaps rather small for the numbers at present placed in them; they are ranged along a corridor; ten pupils are placed in each, and between every two rooms is the apartment of one of the resident tutors (Erzieher or Gouverneur,) who sees that all goes on right in these two rooms under his charge. Here the boys sit and work, and during the hours when they are expected to be preparing their lessons, are carefully looked after by their tutors.
These little apartments occupy one whole floor of the building. The floor above is that of the dormitories, containing each, perhaps, as many as sixty. The number at present in the school was stated to be two hundred and five, and the accommodation properly intended for only one hundred and sixty.
Colonel von Rosenberg, the commandant of the school, stated that eleven was the usual age at which the pupils came. This he appeared to think was rather too early, and he was inclined to attribute to this cause certain points in the character of young men who have been educated in the cadet corps. Eighty of his two hundred and five pupils were pensioners, or paying pupils; many of these also were the sons of officers. The teachers and tutors are partly civilians and partly military men, about an equal number of each. The four classes, Tertia, Quarta, Quinta, and Sexta, are subdivided into nine, so that the average number at a lesson would not be more than twenty-three.
The upper or central cadet school is in the older part of Berlin, in the Neue Friedrichs Strasse, where on the pediment surmounting the gateway the inscription, MARTIS ET MINERVÆ ALUMNIS M.DCC. LXXVI, records the erection by Frederick the Great, ten years before his death, of the large and stately quadrangle which formed the original house. Here the pupils are quartered, and in the great 313 court within, they go through their exercises. There are several houses on both sides of the street attached to the service of the institution, and buildings are in course of erection to accommodate additional numbers.
A large separate building contains the present class-rooms. In the first of these which we visited, thirty cadets were engaged in military drawing; in another, twenty-four of the second class, the Secunda, were busy at their Latin lesson.
The room was fitted up on what appears to be the usual plan, with a series of parallel desks on the same level, ranged along the outer wall, and a sufficient space between them and the inner wall for the teacher to pass freely up and down. His desk was at one end in front of the boys. The lesson was in Quintus Curtius. The teacher (a civilian) made them construe each a sentence, and asked questions in parsing, &c., &c., much in the English manner. There was no taking places. This in German schools appears to be confined to quite the lower classes. There is a separate lecture-room here again for lessons on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, with a small gallery of models, instruments, &c., attached to it.
A large hall is used on state occasions, and serves the purpose also of an examination-room; it is called the hall of the Field Marshals, and is adorned with portraits of the sovereigns of Prussia from the Great Elector downwards, and of the field marshals both of the time of Frederick the Great and of more recent date, among whom is the Duke of Wellington. Here also is kept Napoleon’s sword taken at “La Belle Alliance,” and presented by Marshal Blucher.
Passing to the first floor of the great quadrangular building, we found ourselves in one of the sitting-rooms of the cadets. Seven boys had a couple of rooms, consisting of a common sitting-room, and a common bed-room. Five is the number for which this amount of accommodation was intended, and to five the number will be reduced when the new buildings are completed. In a second and larger pair of rooms we found twelve boys.
Here also is the library, containing 10,000 volumes, and comfortable apartments occupied by the various superintending officers.
The boys, their morning lessons completed, had been going through their military exercises under the superintendence of their officers; but they were now collected in their studying-rooms, and were seen forming at the doors, each small party under the command of its senior, ready to march into the large and handsome dinner-hall.
314Into this the whole body of young men presently moved by companies, proceeding to station themselves in front of the tables. The tables are ranged in parallel lines on each side of the central passage, and accommodate each of them ten, four sitting at each side, and a senior at each end. The order was given by the officer on duty for “prayer” (Nun beten wir,) and a short silent grace was followed by the immediate occupation of the seats, and the commencement of the meal. The arrangements in general appeared to be excellent.
The number in the school during the past year had been 420. The four companies into which the whole body of the pupils is divided, each contain a certain proportion from each of the three classes; the senior in each company being invested with the charge of the juniors; those who are in the Selecta taking rank as under officers. In every room (Stube or Wohnzimmer) there is one Selectaner, who is responsible. The ordinary ages are 15, 16 in the Secunda; 16, 17 in the Prima, and as far as 19 in the Selecta. No one is, as a rule, allowed to pass more than one year in a class; if in that time he can not qualify himself for advancement, he is dismissed. The rule does not, however, appear to be strictly enforced. The general preservation of discipline appears to be a good deal intrusted, as in English public schools, to these senior pupils of the age of eighteen or nineteen. There are Resident Tutors (Erziehers or Gouverneurs) as at Potsdam, who see a good deal of the pupils, especially in the evenings, when they go into the sitting-rooms, sit with them, help them in their work, play at chess with them, &c., &c. But they do not sleep close at hand between the sets of rooms, as at Potsdam, but at some little distance off.
The official arrangements for the control of the discipline consist principally in the system of what are called Censur Classes. This is a peculiar system which requires some explanation. There are five Censur Classes quite independent of the ordinary classes of the school. A boy on entering the Cadet School is always placed in the third of these classes; if he behaves ill, he falls to Class IV. and is under restrictions. Class V. is reserved for serious cases of misconduct, and any one who incurs the penalty of descending to it, is subject to continual superintendence, and is confined to the walls. Class II. gives considerable, and Class I. still more ample privileges. The members of this class (usually only quite the elder boys) are allowed great freedom in the way of going out into the town.
In each of the studying-rooms (the Wohnzimmer) the list of the occupants’ names hangs up on the door inside. One for example 315 was noticed containing twelve names. To each was attached his rank in the Censur Classes, as well as his position in the ordinary classes. At the head stood one Selectaner, who in this instance was in charge of the room; then followed the Primaners; and the list was completed by nine of the Secunda. As at the time of our visit (just after the Easter holidays and the yearly examination) the whole Selecta of the year had just quitted, the room was in the charge of the senior Primaner. The authority exercised by these senior boys appears to be very considerable.
The competition for admission to the Selecta, and for the after selection for immediate promotion, was spoken of as very considerable.
The number who came to the Berlin Cadet House without previously going to one of the junior establishments was said to be only a small per-centage.
The boys both here and at Potsdam were of course all found dressed in a military uniform.
The studies pursued in the Cadet Corps agree nearly with those of the common public schools, but of these there are three different kinds:—
1. The ordinary first-class school, the gymnasium of the Prussian States, is, strictly speaking, a school which prepares for the universities.
2. The second-class schools have the name of Real or Practical Schools; they deal with the actual application to business and work, not with the theory of mathematics or of language, and they may be said to resemble in some degree the schools occasionally attached in English towns to Mechanics’ Institutes, or in the United States, to the Public English High School or the Higher Department of a Union School. Young men who have passed successfully through a gymnasium may be admitted to the army without passing the preliminary or Portepée-fähnrich examination. Those who complete their time at a Real School have not hitherto been allowed the same privilege.
3. There is a third and intermediate class called a Real or Practical Gymnasium, and to this, according to the statements of the official books, the courses of the Cadet Schools have hitherto corresponded. It appears, however, that there is only one specimen of the Real Gymnasium now in existence, the Coëln School in the old town of Berlin. The system here is said to be more practical than the Gymnasium, and less professional or mechanical than the Real School.
316It is intended during the present year to assimilate the course of instruction at the Cadet Schools more nearly to that followed at the Gymnasium or University School; the studies of the senior Cadet School at Berlin will be raised to a higher standard, but Greek and Hebrew, which are taught in all gymnasiums, will not be introduced.
The two systems have corresponded as follows :—
Class in the Cadet Corps. | Age. | Corresponding Class in the Real Gymnasium. |
---|---|---|
6th, or Sexta, | 12 | 5th, or Quinta. |
5th, or Quinta, | 13 | 4th, Quarta. |
4th, Quarta, | 14 | Under 3d, Unter-Tertia. |
3d, Tertia, | 15 | Upper 3d, Ober-Tertia. |
2d, Secunda (at Berlin,) | 16 | Lower Second, Unter-Secunda. |
1st, Prima, | 17 | Upper Second, Ober-Secunda. |
The Selecta, the Military Class, corresponds with the classes of the Division Schools, and with the first year’s course of the Artillery and Engineers’ School.
The plan pursued, both as regards, first, the subjects taught, and second, the amount of time, is as follows:—
The instruction consists throughout, from Sexta up to Prima, of lessons in Latin, German, French, Arithmetic, History, Geography. Natural History begins in the Quinta, at 12 or 13 years old, with Botany and Zoölogy; Mineralogy follows, at 14 or 15; Natural Philosophy at 15 or 16. The first elements of drawing, with the use of rulers, compasses, &c., begins also in Quinta, at 12 or 13. Practice in regular plan-drawing is gradually and increasingly given in every year. The first elements of geometry are taught in the Quarta, and Euclid I. 47. Pythagoras, has to be mastered at 14 years old. Theoretical Arithmetic, in combination with Algebra, is commenced apparently in the Tertia.
The subjects taught in the Secunda, Prima, and Selecta, that is, the course of the Upper School at Berlin, has hitherto been as follows:—
In the Secunda:
Quintus Curtius, Cicero’s Orations, and Ovid’s Metamorphoses; in Mathematics, the completion of Plane and commencement of Solid Geometry; Quadratic Equations; the Physical, Statistical, and Ethnographical Geography of Europe; Ancient History, and History of the Middle Ages, down to the Thirty Years’ War; a first course of Natural Philosophy; French and German Composition continued; Theory and Practice of Military drawing.
In the Prima:
Livy and Virgil; in Algebra, Progressions, Logarithms, Exponential Equations; Trigonometry, Mathematical and pure Physical Geography in general; Modern History; second course of Natural Philosophy, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism, Sound, Light; French, Exercise in Speaking, &c.; History of German Literature; Composition, extempore Exercises; Military Drawing continued.
317In the Selecta:
Arms and Munitions, and Artillery; Fortification, Tactics, Military Literature Practical Exercises, Military Drawing and Surveying; exercises in French and German; Mental Philosophy; Chemistry; and the Differential and Integral Calculus for those who propose to enter the Artillery or the Engineers.
The Secunda have weekly—
6 | hours | of Latin. | |
3 | “ | of German. | |
4 | “ | of French. | |
5 | “ | of Mathematics. | |
2 | “ | of History. | |
2 | “ | of Geography. | |
2 | “ | of Natural Philosophy. | |
2 | “ | of Lessons in Drawing. | |
2 | “ | of Religious Instruction. | |
2 | “ | of French Conversation. | |
Total, | 30 | hours | weekly. |
The Prima—
The same amount in Latin, German, French, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, French, Conversation, and Drawing; in History 3, and in General Geography 2, and Mathematical Geography 1; of Religious Instruction 1. 33 hours weekly.
The Selecta have—
4 | hours | of Tactics. | |
2 | “ | of Military Literature. | |
1 | “ | of Military Law and Regulations. | |
5 | “ | of Artillery. | |
5 | “ | of Fortification. | |
2 | “ | of Plan Drawing. | |
2 | “ | of Mental Philosophy, or English. | |
2 | “ | of Chemistry. | |
2 | “ | of Mathematics. | |
2 | “ | of French. | |
2 | “ | of German. | |
Total, | 20 | hours | weekly. |
The lessons appear to be going on from 8 to 11 or 12 in the morning, and from 2 to 4 or 5 in the evening. The pupils have two hours’ drill twice a week. They get up at half-past 5, have breakfast, and an hour’s preparation before lessons begin. There are similar hours of study in the evening from 6 to 8; and some of the pupils also take private lessons from the teachers.7 During these special hours of study (Arbeitstunde,) the chambers are visited by the officers and tutors, assistance is given and diligence enforced. From 8 to half-past 9 they study as they please; the tutors are a good deal with them in the rooms; at 10 all are in bed. Wednesday and Saturday are half holidays; on Sunday they 318 attend morning service in the garrison church, and after that is over, are allowed to be more or less absent in the town, to be with their parents, relations, and friends.
For the 420 cadets of the Institution at Berlin, there appear to be about twenty professors and teachers not residing in the school, the majority of whom are civilians; and in addition to these, twenty tutors and superintendents resident in the buildings. Of these, sixteen are military officers, half of whom are permanently attached to the corps, and half on duty from various regiments, and four are civilians. The cadets being divided into four companies, each containing so many of the Selecta, so many of the Prima, and so many of the Secunda, to each of these companies are attached one captain, one first-lieutenant, and two second-lieutenants, all of whom, however, take some part in the instruction; and one civilian (Civil-Erzieher) is added with the especial duty of looking after and assisting the studies of the cadets of the company.
The holidays are one month in summer (in July and August,) ten days or a fortnight at Christmas, eight days at Easter, and four at Whitsuntide.
The rules for the entrance of cadets into the army are as follows:—Those who complete their year in the Prima are considered to be sufficiently prepared for ordinary admission. They are sent in to an examination before the Supreme Examinations Board (the Ober-Militair-Examinations-Commission) before examiners entirely independent of and unconnected with the instruction of the cadets; and the majority, if they pass, are admitted simply as Portepée-fähnriche, on the same conditions as the young men already spoken of who enter upon the recommendation merely of the commanding officer of a regiment and the approval of the commanding officer of an army corps. Like these, they serve in the regiment, they attend the Division Schools, and in due time offer themselves for examination for a commission.
Out of this number, however, the sixty who do best are retained, and reserved to receive in the special military class of the Cadet School the instruction which the others are to seek in the Division Schools. These remain another year in the Cadet House, and undergo at its close, before leaving the Cadet House, their officers’ examination before the Supreme Board. The thirty best are once more selected, and receive immediate promotion. Their patents are signed and they join their regiments at once as second-lieutenants. The other thirty, if they have satisfied the examiners, receive a certificate of qualification, and enter with the rank of Portepée-fähnrich, 319 and with, the prospect of receiving commissions without further examination, as soon as vacancies occur. Any one who fails to pass his examination must enter, if at all, simply with the rank of Portepée-fähnrich, and has to qualify himself in the Division Schools for attempting a second time the examination for the officer’s patent.
Such is the system as recently modified. Till quite lately only thirty were promoted from the Prima to the Selecta, and these thirty, unless they failed wholly, obtained immediate commissions at the end of the year. It has been found desirable to introduce the stimulus of competition, to offer a definite reward in the way of superior advantages to the best students, and to make it obviously worth a young man’s while to exert himself, and to be thoroughly diligent during this final year in the Selecta at the Cadet School.
Young men who, after passing the examination in the Prima, desire to enter the artillery and engineers, follow the usual course leading to the Artillery and Engineers’ School. They enter an artillery regiment, or a division of the engineers; they serve for nine months, they enter the special school, they are eligible after the first quarter to the grade of Portepée-fähnrich, and at the close of their first year are examined for their lieutenant’s commission. Those who remain in the Selecta have the great advantage of passing from the Cadet School immediately into the Artillery and Engineers’ School as lieutenants, and commence their course there accordingly at the beginning of the second of the three years. As, however, the school-year closes at the end of April, in the Cadet Houses, and begins in the Artillery and Engineers’ School on the 1st of October, these select cadets also pass five months with their regiment in actual service before recommencing their studies.
The average number who pass in this manner into the Artillery and Engineers’ School is stated by the authorities of the Cadet House to be three annually from the Selecta, and six or eight from the Prima.
It can hardly have escaped observation, that the studies pursued as a qualification for entering the army are, with the exception of the Selecta, almost entirely non-professional, even here in this part of the general system, which is in other respects most military in its character; and the tendency seems to be to carry out to a still greater extent the theory of continuing to as late an age as possible a good general education. There is evidently a general desire in Prussia, to take the officers of the standing army exclusively from the well-educated or the higher classes.
320In the arrangements for the lessons, the very temperate or even timid use of the stimulus of competition deserves to be noticed. It appears, however, to have been lately employed with advantage in the highest class. At the same time, the provision made for giving really good instruction, and for placing all the boys in close relation with their teachers, can not but excite admiration. The small numbers of which the classes consist, and the care which seems to be taken in providing good teachers, both deserve attention.
The domestic arrangements, without being remarkable for the scrupulous cleanliness or the magnitude of the new institutions in Austria, certainly in some respects are more in accordance with English feelings. The greater privacy afforded by the use of rooms where few live together, is certainly more analogous to what has been found most desirable for English boys in large English schools, though most likely the contrary system is not less well-adapted to the national character in France and in Austria.
There are nine Division Schools for the whole army, one for each army corps, and they are placed at the following towns:—
Potsdam, Königsberg, Stettin, Frankfort on the Oder, Erfurt, Glogan, Neisse, Münster, and Trèves.
Here the young aspirant finds himself with nine or ten companions and a body of teachers amounting to about half that number, appointed by the commanding officer of the army corps, and differing considerably in different districts in their talents and ideas of education. They are often, though not always, selected from officers who have been at the Staff School, and afterwards at the Topographical Bureau. Their additional pay for teaching is uncertain; it depends upon the surplus remaining after the expenses of the household, and the money paid in purchasing books, instruments, &c., is deducted from the yearly allowance made to the school by the government. At best it is not high. It is calculated by the number of lectures, and at the most amounts to something more than 4l. 10s. (30 thalers) for the lectures on a single subject, given, it must be remembered, during the course of little more than six months in the year. The highest pay given in the Potsdam School to any one professor amounted to something more than 15 l. (100 thalers) yearly for lectures on three subjects, averaging ten or twelve lectures weekly for about six months. This must be estimated by a Prussian, not an English standard, being nearly equivalent to five-twelfths of the annual pay of a second lieutenant in that service. 321 Still the sum is very low; and this, with some other obvious deficiencies, injures the working of the schools.
The young candidate for a commission begins a course of Tactics, Fortification, theory of Drawing and Surveying, Military Literature, Artillery, &c., Military Essays, and Drawing of Plans, which must be finished at the school in nine months, although it may be continued longer in private if the candidate is not prepared to pass his examination. As long as it lasts, twenty-three hours a week are devoted to study, besides the time occupied by questions, which the teachers are required to set from time to time, in order to keep up the pupil’s previous knowledge of French and Mathematics. The course is divided into the purely theoretical and practical divisions, the first of six and a half months, the latter of two and a half. We have already given a very full account of the studies in p. 188.
The arrangement of studies is systematic, and the number of hours devoted each week to lectures on the various subjects of study and to gymnastic riding and fencing, is as follows:
WEEKLY:
Hours. | |
---|---|
Fortification, | 4 |
Artillery, &c., | 3 |
Tactics, | 4 |
Military Surveying (theoretically,) | 4 |
Military Literature, | 2 |
Instruction on Military Duties, | 1 |
Plan Drawing, | 5 |
Gymnastics, | 2 |
Riding, | 2 |
Fencing, | 2 |
Total, | 29 |
The subjoined plan gives the exact employment of time for each day during the week :—
PLAN OF LECTURES AT THE DIVISION SCHOOL IN POTSDAM, 1855-6.
Hours. | Monday. | Tuesday. | Wednesday. | Thursday | Friday. | Saturday. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
8– 9 9–10 |
Fortification. | Military Literature. |
Tactics. | Fortification. | Artillery | Tactics. |
10–11 | Instruction on Military duties. |
Artillery, &c. |
Plan drawing. |
Military Surveying (theoretically.) |
Plan drawing. |
Military Surveying (theoretically.) |
11–12 | Plan drawing. |
|||||
12– 1 | ||||||
12½–2½ | Gymnastics. | Riding. | Fencing. |
Dinner time, 3 o’clock. Time for studying, from 6 till 8 o’clock, or from 7 till 9 o’clock every evening.
322The lecturer has to draw up what is called the thread of the lecture (leitfaden,) a sort of programme containing its leading heads, intended to assist the memory of the pupils in giving a full account of it afterwards; and the contents of the different lectures on Tactics, Arms and Munitions, Fortifications, &c., are written out very minutely by the students. Ten pages of close print are devoted to these programmes in Helldorf; and the translation already given (pp. 188-194) will show that the list of military subjects adverted to is considerable.
At the end of the nine months spent at the Division School, the “Officier Aspiranten” go to Berlin for the examination for their commission. If they can not pass this, they return to study by themselves for their second trial. Unless by special permission from the King, they can not try more than twice.
The examination is conducted by the Supreme Commission for Examinations at Berlin, and has been already described.
The Division Schools were founded at the end of the great War. Their germ appears in Scharnhorst’s general order in 1810, which, among other things, instituted three War Schools for the candidate for commissions (Portepée-fähnriche.) These three War Schools seem to have been changed into the Division Schools in 1813 and 1816. At first, indeed, they were much more numerous than at present, as their name implies, there being two Divisions to each Army-Corps. There are now, as we have mentioned, nine; and Corps School or Army-Corps School would be the more correct designation.
Their importance as the institutions for special military instruction to all “Officier-Aspiranten” of the army led us to inquire carefully with regard to their efficiency, and in particular from two distinguished officers, on whose judgment and scientific experience great reliance might be placed. One of these, it may be added, possessed constant means of knowing all the details respecting them.
I. Formerly, it appears, it was not possible to limit these schools to their true object, purely military instruction. This was the special object of their creation; but owing to the defective general education which candidates often brought with them into the army, the Division Schools were too much used as a means of meeting this deficiency.
II. The opinions we obtained were certainly not favorable with regard to the present efficiency of these schools. It seemed to be agreed, that from various reasons, the military education given was 323 susceptible of much improvement; that some of the Division Schools were really defective in teaching, whilst none could be pointed to as strikingly good. But it was also admitted that these blemishes arose from remediable defects in the working of the schools; that their principle was in itself sound, and capable of being carried out more perfectly, and excellently adapted to the object of giving some military instruction to all desirous of becoming officers of the infantry and cavalry.
III. The causes assigned for the present defects in the efficiency of the Division Schools were chiefly the following:—
(a.) That they were far too numerous.
Educated and scientific as Prussia may be called, it is not found practicable to supply nine army schools with exactly the sort of men fitted for the work of education. The pay, it must be added, is insufficient to attract many, and thus (as we were informed,) although many officers of intelligence are sometimes not unwilling to leave the life of drill for the life of education for a year or two, few do so with the serious purpose of doing it well. Neither the position nor the emoluments tempt them to make it a profession. Officers in command of the district have made the appointments, and often have “good-naturedly,” as it was said, appointed unfit persons, known as studious men.
(b.) The small number of pupils in each school was also spoken of as a very great disadvantage, as doing away with all emulation amongst themselves.
(c.) The independence which each school has enjoyed, and the want of any central body to watch its working and regulate its system, is also said to have had bad results. The teaching has been far from uniform,—in one school energetic, in another lax; in one school the most important subjects taught, in another, a little of everything; in a third, some special crotchet of a teacher. This has acted badly on the examinations, since it was thought hard to reject an “aspirant” who had done parts of his work well, and had been evidently ill taught or superficially instructed in others.
The remedies suggested were,—
(1.) Considerably to diminish the number of these schools. This, we were told, was about to be done by reducing them from nine to three. Such a course would obviously tend to remedy two of the evils complained of. It would give a larger choice of teachers, and afford more liberal means of remunerating them, and a larger attendance and competition of pupils.
(2.) To place the schools under the more direct regulation and 324 management of the Central Educational Department at Berlin. This step would improve their teaching by subjecting it to constant inspection and reports. It would insure uniformity in the system of instruction and subjects of study; and, when combined with the presence of able teachers, it would enable the Board of Examiners at Berlin to pursue a more strict and unvarying course in rejecting ill-qualified candidates. By these means the teaching in the school would probably become more definite and higher.
One other point was mentioned to us as doubtful. It was thought that the time for attending the Division School came too soon after a young man’s entrance into the army, when he had but recently obtained his liberty, and was likely to be much more unwilling to be sent to school again than might have been the case a year or two later. General von Willisen, who urged this objection to us, was consequently for deferring the attendance at the Division Schools several years in an officer’s life.
We should add, however, that as in Prussia a young Officier-aspirant is still partly a private soldier, we were told that many were glad to exchange the severity of regimental discipline for the Division School.
Young men desirous of obtaining commissions in the Artillery or Engineers follow the course which has already been described. They join either with a nomination from a colonel of artillery or engineers, or as scholars from the Cadet House. They submit themselves for examination for the grade of Ensign (Portepée-fähnrich); they serve their time with the troops, they go through a course of professional study, and are examined in it for their officer’s commission by the Board at Berlin. If they come from the highest class, the Selecta of the Cadet House, they have the privilege of joining the corps with the rank of officer.
In these respects the system is the same for them as for the Aspiranten in the other arms of the service.
The distinctions are, that first, in the preliminary or Ensign’s Examination, a somewhat greater acquaintance with mathematics is required from them; secondly, that they prepare for the Officer’s Examination, and follow their professional studies, not in the Division Schools, but in a separate Special Arm School at Berlin. Moreover, nine months’ service with the troops, instead of six, is required before they can enter the Special Arm School. They enter it also with the rank only of corporal, and are not eligible to the 325 grade of Swordknot Ensign until they have passed three months at least in the school.
Their Officer’s Examination before the Supreme Board at Berlin takes place after nine months more, at the end of the first year at the school, and after passing they are eligible to the rank of officer.
When a vacancy occurs their claim to an actual commission is considered, and the usual formalities are fulfilled. Their names are submitted for approval to the officers of the corps, and with that approbation laid before the King; and they thus in due time obtain their rank as Sub-Lieutenants respectively of Artillery or of Engineers.
This rank, however, is provisional, and their position is that of supernumeraries. Their education as officers may be complete, but their education as officers of Artillery or of Engineers has scarcely in fact commenced. They have before them a third examination, that of the Special Arm, their Vocation-trial or Berufs-prüfung. Or, more correctly speaking, they have not one but two to pass, for the third examination is divided into two stages, one to be passed at the end of each of the two years which yet remain of the course. It is only when these are completed, after a three years’ stay, that the young man is finally allowed to join his corps as a second-lieutenant.
Failure in the officers’ examination at the close of the first year is attended with the penalty of returning to the corps and resuming service in the ranks with the troops. Whether or not the rejected student may be permitted to return after an interval to join again the classes of the first year, or after passing, upon a second trial, the officers’ examination, to enter the classes of the second year, will depend upon the extent of his failure.
Failure in the examination at the close of the second year is similarly visited with the punishment of return to the corps. As they have already passed the officers’ examination, they may endeavor to effect a transfer to a regiment of the line; or, under certain circumstances, they may be permitted to study privately in preparation for the third year’s course, and may offer themselves for a second trial.
If a student fails in his last examination at the close of the third year, he may be allowed, in like manner, under favorable circumstances, to re-enter the third year’s classes, and try to qualify himself by an additional year of study, losing, of course, his seniority. Otherwise, he joins the corps as a supernumerary, with the pay of an infantry officer, and waits till he can obtain a commission in the line.
326Candidates for commissions in the engineers enter the corps, it should be observed, originally as volunteers, finding their own clothing, and receiving no pay; but as soon as they enter the school they are regularly paid by the state, and receive their pay in the usual course of the service from the division to which they belong.
The studies of the three years are arranged in accordance with the system that has just been described. Those of the first year are common to the two arms, and correspond, in a general way, with what is taught in the Division Schools or in the highest class of the Cadet House. Those of the second year are devoted to the special arm subjects. In Mathematics, Artillery, and Fortification, the lectures are common to the artillery and engineers; in drawing they are divided.
In the third year a considerable separation takes place. Mathematics are still taught, and there is a special class of the most advanced students in the Differential and Integral Calculus, the Higher Geometry, and in Analytical Mechanics and Hydraulics; this, however, is purposely restricted to about one-third of the class, by raising the requirements, if necessary.
The course is divided in each year into the theoretical and the practical part. The year commences in October with the former, and the studies for the nine months succeeding are for the most part theoretical only. In June the examinations take place. July, August, and a part of September are given up to practical exercises. Something like the last three weeks of September are allowed for a vacation.
The general control of the school is in the hands of the General Inspectors of the two services, the artillery and the engineers. These two are the Curators of the school and form the Curatorium. They make their reports to the General Inspector of Military Education, of whom mention has already been made. The immediate management is intrusted to a director, who is a field officer of artillery or engineers, of the rank of commandant of a regiment, and he has a captain, appointed by the Curatorium as his assistant.
There is a Board of Studies, of which the Director is chairman, consisting of the Senior Professor of Mathematics, of the Instructors of Artillery and Engineering in the third Cœtus, and of an equal number of officers of the two services named by the Curators.
Four officers, three from the artillery and one from the engineers, acting under the captain, are charged with the care of discipline and order; these are the Direction Officers.
There are twelve military and eleven civilian professors and 327 teachers. Among the military professors and teachers may be included any of the direction officers.
The examinations of the first year are conducted by the usual Board, the Supreme Military Examinations Board; but for those of the second and of the third year, there is a separate board, chosen from the two services by the Curators, and otherwise unconnected with the School.
The numbers in the school vary from 216 to 240. In time of peace about five are yearly admitted for each regiment of artillery, and two or three for each division of engineers. The great majority have entered the army from the usual places of civil education, a few from the Prima of the Cadet House, on the same terms as the others, and a small number, who are usually among the best pupils in the school, from the Selecta, who come as officers, and after a short service with the troops, enter the second year’s classes, provided there is room, preference being always allowed to the students already belonging to the school, who have succeeded in passing the examination of the first year.
The Artillery and Engineers’ School buildings stand in Berlin itself, in the principal street, Unter den Linden, No. 74, near the Brandenburg Gate. They bear the following inscription: Artillerie und Ingenieur Schule. Stiftung Friedrich Wilhelms III. M.DCCC.XXII.
On the occasion of our visit to the school, we were allowed by the kindness of the authorities to be present at some of the lectures. The students of the second year were attending the course on the History of the Art of War, and the immediate subject was an account of and criticism on the battle of Blenheim. The young men, about forty-five in number, were ranged in desks facing the Professor, but not in the manner of an amphitheater. The lecture was interesting, animated, and generally instructive; it was perfectly professorial in character, and the young men took notes. A class of the students of the first year, thirty-five in number, were engaged in topographical drawing. The artillery division of the third year students were in another room, listening to and busily taking notes upon a lecture (also professorial) on the construction of gun-carriages: the number was about forty-five.
Only the students of the first year are lodged in the building; and owing to the unusually large number lately admitted, an adjoining house has been taken to afford additional room. The accommodation in general is rather limited. Two stories in the upper part of the building are occupied by the somewhat scantily furnished 328 chambers; there appeared in some cases to be two young men in one room, in other cases four, or as many as six or seven to a bedroom and sitting-room. The students who lodge in the building dine together in a mess-room; and there is a billiard-room, with coffee-rooms adjoining it, for the general use, looking out from the ground floor front into the Unter den Linden. There is a library, a small laboratory attached to the lecture-room employed for the subjects of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and a small collection of apparatus required for illustration on the latter subject.
On quitting the school, the engineer students, as soon as they obtain their commissions, are employed for three years with a Division of Engineers; then for three years in a fortress to superintend buildings; and then again with a Division of Engineers. They are then eligible to promotion as first-lieutenants.
The artillery students, in like manner, join and serve with their regiments.
Promotion in the artillery is by regiments, in the engineers it is general throughout the whole corps.
We should not omit to call attention to the fact, that the only instance which has come to our knowledge of the promotion of officers in their own arm of the service, being made contingent on their passing an examination, is to be found in the Prussian Artillery and Engineers. First-Lieutenants belonging to those corps must pass an examination before they can be promoted to the rank of captain. This regulation does not exist for any other part of the Prussian service, and it is considered a great grievance by the officers of those corps, as it may be exacted at the age of forty, from the most highly educated officers of the Prussian army.
The pay of subaltern of engineers is somewhat higher than that of the artillery, infantry, and cavalry. Above the rank of subaltern, the pay of the artillery, cavalry, and engineers, is on an equality, but superior to that of the infantry. The engineers have, moreover, a prospect of employment of a civil nature when they return from active service; to lucrative positions of this kind they are not unfrequently appointed.
It should be mentioned before quitting the subject, that all the officers of the artillery and engineers are bound, in consideration of three years’ maintenance in the school, to serve a period of six years, before they can exercise the usual privilege allowed to Prussian officers of withdrawing from the service.
[A particular account of the Course of Instruction in this School will be given in a separate article under the title of the Institution.]
329The War School (Kriegs-Schule) in Berlin has undergone many changes since its foundation in the time of Frederick the Great. It is now the Staff School of Prussia, i.e., the only, or almost the only, means of obtaining a staff appointment is by passing through it, and the education given is particularly intended to form staff officers. Its plan and methods of teaching differ, indeed, from the very commencement from the French Staff School, and bear much more resemblance to the senior department at Sandhurst, with the exception that the senior department is not at present a necessary means towards a staff appointment.
Thus the Kriegs-Schule does not take young men of twenty-one or twenty-two and educate them (like the French Staff School) for the staff and the staff alone. Its pupils are men of twenty-five or twenty-six, officers of three years’ standing, or five years’ service since their first entering the army. At this comparatively ripe age they become candidates for entrance to the Staff School, and, if admitted, they spend there three years of laborious study, with no very brilliant prospects to crown it, as only a very small number obtain what may be called the lowest prize, admission to the Topographical Department; and out of these only two or three yearly of the most distinguished pupils gain the Staff. The rest return to their regiments, and are employed as adjutants or as teachers in the Division Schools.
The process of entrance is as follows:—An officer of three years’ standing desires to go to the Staff School. Any one may send in his name as a candidate for the entrance examination to the minister of war, having obtained a certificate from his superior officer that he understands his regular duty, has no debts, and is capable, both as regards his abilities and bodily strength, of making a good staff officer. Little difficulty is made about admission to become a candidate, nor is there any regulation to limit the number from any one corps or regiment, so that there may be often found in the Staff School more in proportion from the infantry than the cavalry, and vice versâ. Some regiments, we heard, hardly ever send officers to the school. Practically, indeed, the regulation requiring three years of active service bears hard upon the artillery and engineers in comparison with the other services; for, as the officers of these two corps only enter their own school after they have been near a year in the service, and spend three years there, they must have been in the army nearly seven years before they can enter the Staff School.
330The candidate for the Staff School is examined in the capital of the province in which his corps is stationed. The examination is early in April, and it is held at the provincial town instead of Berlin, in order to diminish expense. But the questions are sent from the board of examiners in Berlin, and the same are given in the different provincial towns at one and the same time. The examination is much on the same subjects, and requires about the same actual knowledge as that which was passed at least three years before for a lieutenancy, but owing to the difference of age, the questions are put and are expected to be answered in a much more scientific form than on the first occasion. Thus, we were told, such an essay as “Give an account of the wars of Francis I. and Charles V.,” would at the Kriegs-Schule Examination rather be stated thus: “What was the influence of these wars on the policy and religion of Europe?”
The examination is entirely upon paper; it occupies from ten to twelve days of about five hours daily, the superintending staff officer in the province presiding over it. But his business is limited to reading out the questions sent to him, and taking care that no books are brought in, or any improper means used. The answers to the questions have to go through a double ordeal, the military ones being first examined by some of the staff of the general commanding in the province, and afterwards by the commission of examiners at Berlin. The final decision rests with the chief of the Prussian staff, who recommends the successful officers to the minister of war.
There is an average of sixty or seventy candidates yearly. Only forty of these can be taken. If some additional case seems meritorious, the officer may obtain a promise of appointment, but his entrance is deferred. It is not uncommon to try more than once.
The entrance examination passed, the school opens on the 1st of October, to continue its lectures, with a fortnight’s break at Christmas and at Easter, till the first of June. It has its 120 pupils, divided into their three classes, one for each year, working (with only little of practical work) under professors, military for the lectures of a military, and civil for those of a non-military character. No difficulty, we understood, is found here, as we had heard to be the case at St. Cyr, in enforcing the fullest attention to the lectures of the civilian professors; each is respected according to his knowledge of the subject, and it would be thought as absurd for a military professor to undertake a non-professional subject, as vice versâ.
The method of working is that so commonly followed in the 331 Prussian universities of listening to numerous lectures, and taking copious notes upon them. Nearly five hours daily, from eight in the morning till one, are often continuously occupied in this manner; for although only twenty hours of attendance are absolutely exacted weekly (an amount which to our own students would seem more than ample) ten more are said to be necessary to enable an officer to do any justice to the various subjects of which he is expected to show some knowledge at his examinations.
These lectures are usually read aloud; there is no questioning and answering. The student, after five morning hours, must spend at least five or six more in copying them out, or in writing an essay on the subject of some of the lectures. Of these one is given about every three weeks, but only on military subjects. They are carefully corrected and sent back to the student with the notes of his teacher, and their merit influences the final estimate of his whole work.
Besides this daily work, the examinations are at once a stimulus and a means of testing proficiency. These occur every three months, but the yearly ones are the most important. They are entirely upon paper. In the quarterly ones the papers are only given for two hours at a time daily, and take the place of two common lectures; in the other examinations they are daily for four or five hours. They are entirely essays upon the numerous subjects lectured on in the school, History of War, Philosophy, Tactics, &c.
Perhaps there is no better way of giving an idea of the mode of studying than by a statement of some of the subjects of these essays. They have been supplied to us by the kindness of Lieutenant Berger, of the 28th Infantry, from whom we have received much valuable information on the subject.
General Essays.
On Tactics:—I. A Prussian Division, added to which is,—
1 Regiment of Infantry,
1 twelve pounder Battery,
1 Cavalry Regiment,
is in retreat from Goldberg to Jauer (in Silesia.) The enemy is following. A position is to be taken up to stop his advance, whatever his numbers may be.
A map of the position being given:—
(a.) Describe the position.
(b.) Draw up the troops.
(c.) Write an explanatory criticism.
(To be worked at home in two days.)
Three Corps d’Armée march against Berlin from different points. The army in Berlin is ordered to meet them. (To be done in five hours.)
Permanent Fortification. For what purpose are the fortifications in the main ditch intended, and how are they to be constructed? (Five hours.)
Military Geography. The Saxon land between the Elbe and Saale, and its influence upon the operations of war in North and South Germany. (Five hours.)
Criticism on the organization of the French Battalion. (At home in one day.)
332Examination Essays, Staff School.—Military History, Tactics and Administration.
1. In what respects did the earlier form of military art, strategetically and tactically, favor defensive wars generally, and in particular assist Frederick II. in the Seven Years’ War? (Two hours.)
2. The duties of the Staff in time of peace. (Two hours.)
3. Position of Landwehr Officers on and off duty. (Two hours.)
4. What is the value of the Cavalry formation en échelon, with particular reference to the Austrian mode? (Two hours.)
5. Is only one sort of Infantry necessary, or is Light Infantry essential? (Two hours.)
6. How may the mobilizing of an Army be best expedited? (Five hours.)
7. Describe the different sorts of field works particularly used in war. (Two hours.)
8. How is the Artillery of a Corps d’Armée to be used in the different emergencies of battle? (Five hours.)
Literary and Scientific.
1. The Geological characteristics of the country between the Carpathian Mountains and the Vistula on one side, and the Yaldai Mountains and the Dnieper on the other. (Two hours.)
2. By what political conjunctures was the power and influence of England peculiarly advanced in the 18th century? (Five hours.)
3. On the magnetic effects of the electric stream. (Two hours.)
4. Characteristics of Greek literature, and its chief authors in the time of the Peloponnesian War. (Two hours.)
The knowledge required is seen in the account of the Staff School, (p. 395) and in the list of the Lectures given above. Besides military subjects, it includes a very full course of Ancient and Modern History, an addition to the History of War (which last alone occupies seven hours weekly for the last year,) a good deal of Logic and Philosophy of Art and Literature, and of Political Economy. Some of these lectures have probably been introduced from the school, having a double object, that of giving a diplomatic as well as a military education. This was the original idea of Frederick the Great, who, in all his plans of military teaching, laid a great stress on the general literature which he himself valued so highly. This diffusive study is a strong contrast to the principle of “little, but well,” and to the constant practical exercises in the laboratories insisted on by the early teachers of the Polytechnic School in France.
The following is the plan of the lectures for the three years. Twenty lectures a week are the minimum:—
Course of First Year.
Obligatory | |
---|---|
Tactics, | 4 hours. |
Artillery, | 3 “ |
Field Fortification, | 2 “ |
Military and Political Administration and Economy, | 2 “ |
Mathematics, Pure and Mixed, | 6 “ |
17 hours. | |
For Choice | |
Universal History, | 4 hours. |
Universal Geography, | 3 “ |
Physical Geography, | 4 “ |
10 hours. | |
Total, 27 hours. |
Numbers printed as shown.
333Course of Second Year
Obligatory | |
---|---|
Tactics, | 4 hours. |
Permanent Fortification, | 2 “ |
Special Geography and Geology, | 4 “ |
10 hours. | |
For Choice | |
Universal History, | 4 hours. |
Mathematics, | 6 “ |
Logic, | 4 “ |
Physics, | 4 “ |
Lectures on Horses, | 2 “ |
20 hours. | |
Total, 30 hours. |
Course of Third Year.
Obligatory | |
---|---|
History of War, | 7 hours. |
Staff Duty, | 3 “ |
Art of Sieges, | 2 “ |
Military Jurisprudence, | 1 “ |
13 hours. | |
For Choice | |
General History of Literature, | 4 hours. |
Mathematics, | 6 “ |
Higher Geodesy, | 3 “ |
Chemistry, | 4 “ |
17 hours. | |
Total, 30 hours.8 |
It will be seen that the above course is entirely theoretical; no practical work (as in France) relieves the sedentary labor of ten 334 hours daily for more than eight months of the year. But as soon as the first year’s course is ended, all the officers who are supposed to know drawing before coming to the school, are sent into the country for three weeks to practice military drawing and surveying; and those of the third year go through (also for the same period) a similar course of staff duty. These last are sent under the direction of the officer who is Professor of Staff Duty at the School; each student officer gets his separate orders, and they meet and are told off every morning for their day’s work, reconnoitering fortresses, surveying the frontiers between Austria and Prussia, &c., &c. During the remaining three summer months the students are sent in successive classes to those arms of the service which are not their own, and after the usual military exercises are completed they must bring back with them a certificate of proficiency from the commanding officer. This amount of time was spoken of as being too little.
If we are surprised at not finding a greater amount of practical work included amongst the labors of the school, we must remember that it is chiefly postponed to a later period of the officer’s career, when the probability of his being required to use it on the staff is greater. This is when he has gained his place in the Topographical Department, and is working there upon trial to test his fitness for the actual staff. He is then employed during winter in working on the Theory of War, and during summer in military surveying and drawing.
Such is the method and extent of the officer’s work at the Staff School; a few more words are needed on the character of his examinations, which here as everywhere else must greatly influence the character of the work.
There are no less than nine examinations during the three years, one for every three months, but the final one at the end of each year is the more important, as a sort of summing up of the year’s work. In marking for this the merit of the essays done at home is taken into account. The result in each branch of work and on every examination is entered by the several professors in a book kept at the directory, and the pupils have a right to inspect the report of their own work. The net result of his own three years’ work is also sent to the officer after leaving the school through the authorities of his regiment. The certificate of this contains the criticism on each branch of his work in detail.
The subjects given for essays will show the nature of the chief examinations (i.e. those at the end of each year;) four or five hours 335 is the time generally allowed to a difficult subject, the examination stretching over a number of days, in proportion to the subjects taken up. The pupil may bring in his notes of lectures, on which extraordinary care is bestowed, and which must contain everything that can be said on the subject. Much value is said to be attached to the rapidity with which an essay is worked, as showing a quality valuable in an officer. There is, as we have observed, no vivâ voce of any kind in this School. Some competition exists in the Staff School, (and it is almost the only Prussian school where we find it,) for the knowledge that only eight or ten out of the forty pupils can obtain the Topographical Department, and only two out of these eight or ten, the staff, acts as a competitive stimulus. We must add, however, that although a minute account of the positive merits of the pupils is drawn up and sent to them at the end of their career, they have no means of ascertaining their relative positions; and this may always leave room for doubt, whether the places in the Typographical Department and on the Staff are strictly given by merit, or whether patronage does not here step in. Another ambiguity may be remarked in the fact that the relative importance of the subjects of study is not known. It may of course be surmised, that a knowledge of the Peloponnesian War is not marked so highly as that of the Seven Years’ War; but any indefiniteness as to what is or what is not important, will generally lead to an attempt to know something of all the subjects mentioned, and it would undoubtedly be better to affix its definite value to every subject. It would prevent what seem to us valid objections to the present system of the Staff School, the attempt to crowd in too many subjects, instead of mastering thoroughly a few.
The final examination having been completed in June, the student goes through the three weeks of staff duty we have described, and finishes his last three summer months in that branch of the army in which he has not yet served. He then returns to his regiment, where he receives the certificate of his three years’ work. But no list is published of the order of merit in which the officers stand. If the certificate is satisfactory, he forwards it to the Chief of the Prussian Staff, with a request to be employed in the Topographical Department of the Staff. If this is granted, he receives an order to join it in about two years, i.e. about nine or ten years after first entering the service.
About eight officers are yearly sent to the Topographical Department, and serve there for two or three years, surveying and drawing in summer, working at military science in the winter. The 336 correction of the Topographical Map of Prussia is in their hands. Finally, two out of these are selected for the Staff; the remainder return to their regiments, to become adjutants or to teach in the Division Schools.
The most immediate advantage of being in the staff corps is promotion to a captaincy at any age, which, considering the extreme slowness of promotion in Prussia, may be termed an early one. This is generally gained within two or three years after joining the corps, i.e. at thirty-three or thirty-four. In other corps hardly any one has a chance of becoming captain till after forty.
We may add, that the number of officers in the Topographical Department is about forty, on the staff itself sixty-four. No one belonging to the staff is below the rank of captain, or above that of colonel. Every general of division has one officer of the staff attached to him, and two adjutants, the first nominated by the chief of the staff, the two last by the king, and these two belong rather to the officer than to the general. They are not removable with him. The adjutants are not officers of the staff, though they are often chosen from amongst those who have been at the Staff School. They are nominated by the king upon reports sent into him by the generals of division, and the appointment is not considered a great prize, as it implies neither extra pay, promotion, nor permanency; the adjutants are promoted in the usual course, and then, upon promotion, return to their regiments. The adjutants of battalions and regiments are appointed, like our own, by the officers commanding. The name of aide-de-camp does not exist in the Prussian service, but that of adjutant is used in its place.
There are three Military Orphan-Houses in Prussia for the children of soldiers, two for boys, one at Potsdam, and the other at Annaburg, and one for girls at Pretzch. Although intended for orphans, they receive children whose parents are too poor to provide for them. They receive a good elementary education and are brought up for trades, and can make their selection between a civil and a military career. The English Commissioners report that they found 800 pupils in the Orphan-House at Potsdam, of whom 200 were under the charge of female teachers; 520 were in the senior department, including thirty-six in the music class, who will go into the Regimental Bands, and about twenty who formed a separate military class, who would probably enter the Artillery School.
337The School at Annaburg, and the subsidiary Girls’ School at Pretzsch, are both Protestant in character; no religious teaching is supplied for Roman Catholics. Roman Catholic boys are all sent to Potsdam, and Roman Catholic girls are provided for in ordinary schools, and in private families, and payment made on their behalf out of the funds of the institution.
Dr. Bache in his “Report on Education in Europe,” gives the following account of these institutions.
Military Orphan-House at Potsdam.
This institution was founded in 1724, by Frederick William the First of Prussia. The reputation of Franke’s Foundations induced this monarch to rival the benevolence of the clergyman, and to establish on a scale proportioned to his greater means, a house for the education of the orphans of his soldiers. While, however, the recipients of Franke’s bounty are free to choose their career in after life, and only so far bound to the institution, as a sense of gratitude may prompt, the youth who passes through the Military Orphan-house of Potsdam, must enter the military service for twelve years. Three of these, indeed, are the term of service of every citizen, and I believe the three years in the non-commissioned officers’ school are now counted as part of the twelve, and thus the actual number of extra years of service is reduced to six. The institution began with one hundred and seventy-nine children, both girls and boys being received; this arrangement continued until a few years since, when the girls’ school was removed from Potsdam, and the establishment at present is for male pupils only. There are between three and four hundred in the elementary or boys’ department. In the early history of the orphan-house two attempts are recorded to introduce manual labor, as a profitable speculation; neither of which appears, however, to have succeeded. The first of these, the manufacture of Brabant lace, was introduced in 1743, and after various modifications of the mode of applying the labor of the children, it was finally abandoned in 1795. In 1744, the culture of silk was introduced extensively throughout the kingdom, and especially enjoined at the orphan-houses; but this attempt was not more successful in the end than the other, and the culture is not kept up in this institution.
The present spacious buildings were chiefly constructed under the reign of the founder and of Frederick the Great. Additions have, however, been made from time to time since, and the whole plan is hardly yet completed. The institution may be considered as divided into three departments or schools; an elementary school, (called the Boys’ House, das Knabenhaus,) a trade school, and a music school. The buildings for the elementary school are erected about a spacious court, which serves as an exercising and play-ground. On the ground floor are the refectory, in which all the youth from the different schools composing the institution, meet three times a day, and the study and play-rooms, lavatory, &c. The study-rooms form a long range, and when the doors of communication are opened, one teacher can superintend the whole of the classes. The school-rooms are on the first and second floors, and are calculated for divisions of forty boys each. There are six dormitories, furnished with wooden or iron bedsteads, the latter having been more recently introduced and found to 338 answer well. The bedding consists of a straw bed beneath, and a mattress of hair above. Each dormitory is superintended by a teacher, who sleeps at one end of it. There are also dwelling-rooms for the teachers, officers, &c., and in the court a very large wash-house, with a drying-room above it.
The buildings occupied by the trade and music schools are separated by a street from the others, and with the dwellings of the officers, a room for gymnastic exercises, and musical practice, and the workshops, form a second immense series of structures. The infirmary is near to them, and is under a separate direction; subordinate, however, to the general executive body. It is divided into rooms assigned to patients suffering from different complaints. A schoolmaster gives instruction to the convalescent. The arrangements in the dormitories of the trades’ school, are similar to those used in the army, and the Superintendence and discipline are strictly military.
The part of the building occupied by the music school, contains separate rooms for practicing by individuals, class-rooms, and dormitories. There are rooms in the main pile for the meetings of teachers, for a small library, &c.
The executive board of this school depends partly on the ministry of war, and partly on that of public instruction; the former, however, is the controlling authority. Under this board is the military superintendent, or director, to whom the chaplain, the secretaries, the economist, the military superintendent of the day, the teachers, commandants of companies, the inspectors of the trades’ and music school, and other officers, are directly responsible. The clergyman is the superintendent of the elementary school, and has a general charge of all the intellectual and religious instruction.
The orphan children of soldiers are received for maintenance, at any age, by the authorities of the establishment, but if under six years, are boarded with their friends or others until six, and then admitted into the house at Potsdam; they remain there until fourteen or fifteen years of age, and, if of sound constitution, are transferred to the trade, or to the music school, where they remain four years, and whence they pass, if their conduct has been good, to the school for non-commissioned officers. I have never seen a body of young men all so well physically developed as the pupils of the trade school, a result produced by constant attention to their education on this point. Children who are not healthy, or who have failed in the elementary school, are apprenticed at fourteen, and the institution ceases to have the charge of them.
In the Elementary School, the usual branches taught in the common schools of Prussia are pursued, including reading, writing, arithmetic, the German language, geography, drawing, religious instruction, and a little natural history. The boys are divided into four classes, according to their proficiency, and all the classes below the first are subdivided into two sections, each being under the charge of a teacher, and having a separate recitation room. These sections contain about forty pupils each. A monitor of order from among the pupils, has charge of a section on entering and leaving the school-room, and render such service as the master requires during the lesson; he is assisted by one of the class in the distribution of the books, slates, and other implements of instruction. The teachers keep each a roll, upon which the character of the recitation and conduct of the pupils is entered, and which is examined weekly by the chaplain, and submitted to the board of teachers at their meetings. No youth, who is below a certain grade upon this roll, is permitted to enter the trades’ school. There are about five hours of instruction on four days of the week, and 339 about twenty-three in the whole week. The holidays are, a week at Easter, four days at Michaelmas, a fortnight in the latter half of July, and from the twenty-third of December, to the second of January. For those who have no friends to go to, the Christmas festivities are kept up in the school, as in the private families of the country.
The board of teachers meet once every fortnight, and the director, or his substitute, or the chaplain, presides. At their meetings, all matters relating to instruction and discipline are discussed.
The form of the discipline of the school is military, but a spirit of mildness tempers it, suiting it to the age of the pupils. The boys, in general, are divided into four companies, each of which has a commandant, (a non-commissioned officer of the highest grade,) who has charge of the instruction in military exercises, and ranks with the teachers of the school. These companies form a battalion, and are drilled without arms, and inspected by the director, or an officer appointed by him. In turn the commandants of companies, acting as officers of the day, have general charge of the military and police duties. Two of the teachers, also, in turn, act as inspectors of the day, and have the general superintendence of the pupils in study and recreation hours, in the duties of personal police, at meals, and in the dormitories, relieving each other at different parts of the day. They are co-ordinate in authority with the officer of the day, and he is expected to relieve and aid them in the maintenance of order. These officers report immediately to the director.
The four companies are subdivided into sections of eleven, over each of which one of the boys is placed, with the title of overseer, or corporal, and he is responsible for the good order of his section, and may be assisted in his duties by one chosen from it. From among these corporals one is selected for the general control and superintendence of the others, and marches the company to the lavatory, to meals, to the dormitory, &c., being responsible for them whenever they are collected as a company. The boys composing a section are placed at meals upon the same side of the table with the corporal who has charge of them. The younger pupils do not join these companies at once, but are kept together in a division which is under female superintendence, has a separate overseer, and is under different regulations as to rising, going to bed, and other particulars of discipline and police from the elder pupils.
All the duties of domestic and personal police, and some of those of domestic economy, are performed by the boys enrolled in the four companies. They clean their own shoes, brush their own clothes, attend to the police of the different parts of the building, serve the meals, and make their beds. That the various duties may be attended to in an orderly way, there are, besides those already spoken of, special overseers appointed among the pupils, who have general charge of them while engaged in certain duties, and of particular localities. Thus there is an overseer of the room where the clothes and shoes are kept, who has charge of the exchange of the Sunday for week day dress, and vice versa; an overseer of the room where the shoes are brushed and blacked; an overseer of the lavatory; four superintendents of cleanliness, who direct the pupils while washing and combing their hair; one of hair cutting; two of serving the table, who have charge of a detail of thirty pupils, who serve and clear the tables and clean the knives and forks; one, of the manual labor classes; one, of the sick in the hospital; one, of those who are unwell, and must report to the physician; one, of the lights; one, to prevent the passing of bounds; one 340 the pupils who sing the liturgy in the church; one to conduct the pupils, whose shoes require repairs, to the shoemaker; besides, those for the classes and the younger boys, already mentioned, and a few others. I make this enumeration in order to show the minuteness of the arrangements for police and discipline, and the extent to which they are conducted by the pupils themselves. The selections for appointments are made by the teachers and officers, and submitted to the chaplain and director for their approbation. A part of the pupils employed as superintendents receive small pecuniary allowances, and all enjoy many privileges.
Some of the pupils, who are found to have a taste for music, receive special lessons, and are employed, when sufficiently proficient, to give the signals for the different duties of the day. Eight pupils are thus selected to be taught the bugle and fife, and twelve the drum.
In regard to conduct, the pupils are divided into four grades, according to the reports of the teachers and officers, a revision of the classification taking place every quarter, and the director having, in the meantime, the power to displace a pupil in a case of emergency. The first class grade is composed of pupils distinguished for unvarying good conduct, and on holidays its members are allowed to leave the orphan-house alone to make small purchases at discretion, and are neither subject to corporal punishment nor to the stoppage of their meals. The second class is composed also of meritorious pupils, but of a lower grade of conduct than the first; they are permitted to leave the school sometimes, but not so often as the others, and are generally under supervision. From these two grades only, the superintendents or overseers are taken. Pupils of the third grade stand between those who are decidedly good or bad, and are treated accordingly. They are the last who are permitted to pass from the elementary to the trades’ school, on completing their course in the former. Those of the fourth, or lowest grade, are kept constantly under supervision, have no allowances, no leaves of absence, are separated, when possible, from the rest of the pupils, and are even punished by an inferior diet.
The health of the pupils is promoted by frequent bodily exercise, and, when the weather permits, in the open air. Thus they have regular gymnastic exercises four times a week, are drilled by companies four times, and by battalion twice a week, take frequent walks, and in summer, bathe every day. The regular manual labor in this department of the school is confined to knitting and tailoring. The gymnastic exercises are conducted by two teachers, each taking charge of one of the companies, of which two attend the lesson at the same time, and assisted by pupils selected from among the most proficient in the exercises. There are two swimming lessons given to each company, in summer, every week. In the ordinary division of the day, in summer, between two and three hours are allowed for manual labor, the same for recreation, two hours for exercise, and nearly eight for sleep.
Their clothing is a neat uniform jacket of blue cloth, of a military fashion, gray or white pantaloons for the winter, and a brown linen jacket and white linen pantaloons for the summer, and their officers are distinguished by badges similar to those worn in service. The diet is generous, and, besides the three meals, bread is served as a luncheon in the morning and afternoon intervals.
An opportunity is given to those who are to pass into the trades’ school, to ascertain the trade which they may wish to follow, by a trial during the last year of the elementary course.
341The order of the day, with merely slight variations during four days of the week, in summer, is as follows:—The pupils rise at a quarter before five o’clock, and proceed by companies to the lavatory, two companies occupying it at once and alternating, the other two being, meanwhile, engaged in cleaning their shoes. Wash and comb their hair. At half past five the boys detailed to serve the meals proceed to the refectory under their two superintendents. At a quarter before six the bugle sounds, and the companies assemble, by sections, in the court-yard. Morning prayers and breakfast. Those who are slightly sick report to the physician. At a quarter before seven, the boys assemble according to classes, and at seven are marched to the school-rooms. At a quarter before nine a luncheon of bread is served out to them. School closes at eleven, and the pupils are free for three-quarters of an hour. Dinner at about a quarter before twelve. The pupils brush their clothes, and are inspected by the officer of the day. From a quarter past one to half-past two, review the morning lessons in school. From a quarter to three until five, are occupied with manual labor in the work-rooms. Part of the pupils receive instruction in music, and the first and second classes in drawing; a stated number take a swimming lesson; the drummers, fifers, and buglers also have a lesson. A luncheon of bread is distributed. One of the companies is at drill, one at gymnastics, and the other pupils bathing or walking until seven. Evening prayers in the refectory, and supper. Wash, and have recreation until nine, when they retire. The younger pupils retire at half-past eight.
In winter, the different occupations of the day are each one hour later than in summer, until half-past two, when the hour of review of the lessons is omitted, and the exercises, as far as appropriate to the season, follow in the same order as in summer, until half-past five, at which hour the pupils go to the school-room, and remain until a quarter before seven.
On Wednesday and Saturday, an hour is devoted to religious instruction, the other lessons being omitted, except the physical exercises on Wednesday. Stated days and periods of the day are assigned for the exchange of the weekday clothes for those of Sunday, for taking clothes or shoes requiring repairs to the tailor or shoemaker of the establishment, for hair-cutting and combing, for washing the neck and shoulders, the feet, and for other minute matters.
The object of the Trade School, is, in part, to economize the funds of the institution, by making within its walls articles of clothing required for the pupils, but more to secure the acquisition, not only of general mechanical dexterity, but of a trade, which may serve to increase their emoluments when they enter the military service. There are, at present, one hundred and four pupils.
In order to pass into the trades’ school from the elementary division, the pupil must have reached at least the second class, have been above the fourth grade in conduct, be between fourteen and fifteen years of age, and of a bodily constitution fitting him for the military service. The course lasts three years. The school has a special inspector, or superintendent, who is responsible to the director of the whole institution, or, in fact, to his substitute.
The different trades now taught here are those of blacksmiths, saddlers, tailors, shoemakers, and lithographers. The last named has but seven pupils admissible to its school, and the next to the last forty-four. These numbers depend upon the demand for the occupation subsequent to leaving the establishment, the space required for the operations of the trade, the difficulty of teaching, &c. As each pupil is in general permitted, on advising with the inspector, 342 to choose his employment, it sometimes happens that boys are sent into the town to learn a trade not taught in the school. Changes of occupation are very rare, but are sometimes permitted. The blacksmiths are principally engaged in the repairs of arms, the saddlers make the caps and accoutrements, &c., used in the house, the tailors all the uniforms, the shoemakers supply not only this orphan-house, but that of the girls with shoes, and the lithographers are occupied in copying forms for the school or war department, manuals, &c. They work about seven hours a day, under a master-workman from the town.
An hour of each day is spent in gymnastic or military exercises in the open air in summer, and in winter in the large room before spoken of. The military exercises, besides the ordinary ones, comprise some which are peculiar to the Prussian service. The usual exercises of gymnastics are introduced, omitting any which seem to have a tendency towards the tricks of the mountebank. For instruction in these exercises, the whole school is divided into two parts, and each again into squads, so that the teacher need have but twelve to fourteen under his charge. Non-commissioned officers are the under teachers, and in turn are superintended by higher teachers, and by an inspector.
There can be no doubt that to these well regulated and perseveringly continued exercises it is, in great part, due that the physical development of these youths is, on the average, so perfect. Judicious recreation, a proper diet and clothing, great cleanliness, a proper number of hours of work, of instruction and sleep, no doubt, are necessary, each and all in their degree, but great influence must be besides allowed to the gymnastic exercises.
The pupils have two hours of instruction during the day, intended to keep up their knowledge of the branches taught in the elementary school, rather than to teach new ones. Military drawing is, however, added.
When not in the shops, nor in school, nor at exercise, they are superintended by non-commissioned officers. The discipline in this school is military in spirit, as well as in details.
Those pupils who have manifested a decided musical talent in the lower school, are here instructed thoroughly in the theory and practice of music. The object is to supply musicians to the regimental bands. These pupils have a separate superintendence from those of the other schools, and different hours of exercise and duty. They keep up the knowledge acquired in the elementary school, as is done in the trades’ school.
Military Orphan-House at Annaburg.
The following plan of instruction was prepared by Dr. Harnisch, one of the most distinguished teachers of Prussia, formerly Principal of the Teachers Seminary at Weissenfels.
In order to rise to the place of a non-commissioned officer, the pupil must have gone through the lowest classes of the Upper School, where there are the following studies:—
Religious instruction, arithmetic, singing, the German language, calligraphy, geography and history, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and drawing.
The courses in the different branches are arranged as follows:—
First. Religious Instruction.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. Bible stories, psalms and hymns, appropriate to the season. Four hours per week.
Class VI. Histories from the Old and New Testament, portions of the history of the Christian church, catechism. Four hours per week.
Class V. Reading and explanation of the Bible, and of its arrangement. The gospel and 343 historical works are selected, and the history is connected with the geography of the Holy Land. Catechism. Five hours.
Class IV. Doctrines of the Lutheran church, taught by Luther’s catechism. Five hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Moral instruction, duties to God and man. Three hours.
Class II. Reading the Bible with comments, the pupils making abstracts. Three hours.
Class I. (Two years.) The first year a repetition of Luther’s catechism. The second, a history of the Christian dispensation. Three hours.
Every class commits verses from the Bible to memory.
Second. Arithmetic. Mental and written arithmetic are taught together, that the readiness afforded by the one, and the accuracy of the other, may both be cultivated.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. The four ground rules, with three places of figures mentally. Application to questions in weights and measures. Three hours.
Class VI. The same rules extended. Three hours.
Class V. Fractions, with applications to weights and measures. Three hours.
Class IV. Proportions. Three hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. The applications of proportions to questions of weight, strength, value, time, and general quantity. Two hours.
Class II. Exercises in practical algebra. Two hours.
Class I. Review of the course. First year, practical operations. Second, theory of arithmetrical processes. Two hours.
Third. Vocal Music.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Classes VII & VI. Practice of songs, adapted to youth of a cheerful, serious, military, or religious cast, with one part. Two hours.
Classes V & IV. Choral and other songs, with the different parts. Elements of music. Two hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Classes III, II, & I. More difficult choral pieces. Theoretical instruction continued. One hour. There is, besides, instruction given to a select choir, intended to conduct the vocal exercises of the church.
Fourth. Reading. In the lower classes, a readiness in reading, and in the higher, the style of reading, is attended to especially. Pieces learned previously, by heart, are recited.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. A good pronunciation, and some facility in reading. Six hours.
Class VI. Readiness in reading, and repeating the substance of what has been read. Familiar illustrations. Five hours.
Class V. Reading some work in reference to knowledge useful in common life. Four hours.
Class IV. Reading, with attention to emphasis. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Reading the Bible and sacred melodies, with the view to correct reading in this kind of composition. Two hours.
Class II. Reading various selected works, in and out of the class.
Class I. Reading continued, and recitations from works previously read.
Fifth. Orthography and Writing. These may be taught together in the same way as mental and written arithmetic; the teacher is, however, at liberty to follow his own method.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. Copying on slates from the blackboard. Four hours.
Class VI. Copying on paper, from the board, and from books. Four hours.
Class V. Writing from copy-slips, from books, or from dictation. (Practice in spelling and writing.) Four hours.
Class IV. Similar exercises continued. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Copying useful papers, such as registers, accounts, contracts, &c. Two hours.
Class II. Calligraphy, with Roman as well as German letters; practice in orthography; reading of letters and documents in various handwritings. Two hours.
Class I. Copying papers relating to the management of the institution, as a practical introduction to business. One hour.
Sixth. Useful knowledge taught by induction.
LOWER SCHOOL.
Class VII. The pupils give their ideas, verbally, of surrounding objects of the most simple kind, of the commonest productions of nature and art. Conversations relating to them. Drawing the most simple mathematical figures on the slate. Three hours.
Class VI. Descriptions of animals and plants, the former in the winter, the latter in the summer term. Written remarks on these, serving to afford exercise in the formation of phrases and in orthography. Four hours.
344Class V. The most essential parts of physics and natural history, the pupils taking notes of the lessons. Four hours.
Class IV. Compositions on various subjects. Letters relating to civil and military affairs. Four hours.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. History of Prussia, and drawing of maps. Four hours.
Class II General geography, particularly that of Europe. Passing from physical to political geography. Civil geography in connection with the former. Five hours.
Class I. Universal history. One year is devoted to ancient and one to modern history. Selections are made of the more important parts of history. Five hours.
The remaining studies only belong to the higher school.
Seventh. German grammar and style.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Logical and grammatical instruction of the German language taught.
Class II. Idiom of the language. Compositions on military subjects, with especial reference to correctness of grammar.
Class I. Acquaintance with the best writers. Exercises of composition on subjects taken from history.
Eighth. Geometry.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Teaching the names and properties of mathematical figures by induction, in connection with drawing.
Class II. Equations, with application to problems of common life.
Class I. Elements of trigonometry.
Ninth. Drawing.
UPPER SCHOOL.
Class III. Drawings from common objects, varying the positions, &c.
Class II. Copying flowers, or drawings of implements.
Class I. Architectural drawing with instruments, drawings of furniture, &c.
Dr. Bache makes the following remarks on the above plan:
I have allowed myself to present this extended programme, because it conveys, in as brief a compass as possible, excellent ideas of the succession of courses in an elementary school, and in a technical or trade school, for such the higher school must be considered. It should be remembered that the main purpose is the preparation of youth for the military service, and hence that the wants of the service are especially consulted. Another fact must be remembered, namely, that this is a Lutheran school, and therefore the religious instruction is adapted to the particular views of that church. The course of morals of the third class, I must say, however, seems to me out of its place, for although our duties to God and our neighbor are of course best learned from his Word, yet their inculcation by precept and example can not commence too early.
In the arithmetical course, the union of mental and written arithmetic is absolutely essential. The gradation appears to me good, and the application to questions of common life gives a zest to such studies, attainable in no other way. The theory of arithmetical processes, however, should accompany or follow more nearly their practical acquisition. Indeed, if they are taught as they ought to be, by induction, the theory goes with the practice.
If the youth at Annaburg take the same pleasure in the exercises of song, from the elements to the completion of the musical course, as those of the school9 actually superintended by the author of this project, the success will be complete.
The connection of orthography and writing, especially if combined with early reading, is natural.
The exercises of induction, which in the lower classes are well drawn out, deviate from the appropriate track in the fourth class, and in the geographical and historical courses do not return to it. The system in both these branches is rather synthetical than inductive. There is a great temptation to break away from this method, into that of giving positive instruction, from the apparently greater rapidity of progress of the pupil; some teachers have abandoned it altogether, as too slow, though ultimately to their cost, as appeared to me in cases where I had an opportunity of comparing the results.
The writing is preceded by an introductory course of drawing, which might 345 with excellent effect be so extended as to branch out into complete courses of drawing and writing.
As this plan results from an extended experience, the number of hours of instruction, per week, necessary to secure the results, is an important datum, and as such I have retained it, whenever it was inserted in the original programme.
A military school of a somewhat peculiar character for training up young men for the duties of non-commissioned or under officers exist at Potsdam, and is known as the School Division.
The rules of the Prussian Military system, which require only three years absolute service in the standing army in time of peace, evidently entail a great practical difficulty in this respect. The soldiers, as a rule, prefer to quit the service at the end of their three years’ time, and require great inducements to persuade them to remain. As one inducement, the state has declared that twelve years’ service gives a non-commissioned officer a formal claim to civil employment; as, for example, on the railways or in the custom-houses. Their pay also as non-commissioned officers goes on increasing according to the length of their service; and it was stated to be the usual practice not to advance soldiers to be non-commissioned officers until they had signed an undertaking to serve for a longer period than could be exacted of them otherwise.
A further means of supplying the want has been sought, and appears to have been found in the School Division. The circumstances of its origin have placed this establishment in immediate connection with the Corps of Guards, to which, in a military sense, they belong, at whose head-quarters, the town of Potsdam, their buildings are situated, and whose garrison duty in the town they occasionally undertake.
At its first commencement the pupils chiefly came in drafts from the Military Orphan-Houses. But the applications from the country in general have been so numerous that this practice has been, it is said, abandoned, and a higher class of admissions has been attempted. The Commander of the Battalion of Landwehr for the Circle (Kreis) receives all applications in that Circle; he sees that the candidate is examined on the spot, in reading, writing, and cyphering; and forwards the name, height, age, and other particulars (the Nationale) to the authorities. The decision is said to be mostly made by the candidate’s height, and his medical certificate, and to be rather a difficult matter. Only one-third of the applications are successful. A new boy had just presented himself with 346 his father at the time of our visit; both son and father were well dressed, and apparently belonged to the middle rather than the lower classes. There seems every reason to be satisfied with the amount of acceptance with the country which the school had begun to receive.
The age of admission is from seventeen to twenty, and the youth on entering the school takes a military engagement to give two years of service in the standing army for each year of his maintenance at the school, in addition of course to those three years of military service to which every Prussian is bound, but with the privilege of counting as military service the period spent at the school.
The usual school course is one of three years, and his engagement is thus for a term of nine years; that is, deducting three spent at the school, six years’ time with the troops.
The School Division is 496 strong; there are four companies of 124 men. The whole body is commanded by a captain, or major, who has an adjutant. To each company are attached four officers and fourteen non-commissioned officers; the latter teach in the two first years, the former in the third. The school course begins on the 1st of October; the afternoons of three days in each week are employed in ordinary school instruction, but the remainder of their time in winter and their whole time in summer is devoted to military training. The school instruction is not carried beyond reading, writing, and arithmetic up to the rule of three; geography, drawing skeleton maps, and copying, and learning the significance of military representations of ground. Some very respectable specimens of their skill in copying maps were produced; it appeared to be a favorite exercise.
About 150 are admitted yearly, an extra number being taken to supply possible vacancies; about 130 yearly are drafted into the army, six usually as under officers at once, forty at least with certificates of being qualified to receive the grade in a short time; and the whole number who go out have generally obtained their appointment before twelve months are completed. The highest number that may go out at once as under (or non-commissioned) officers is twelve; three for each company. Many, however, have latterly, it is said, become so within six weeks after their leaving.
Where the young men are strong and full-grown, they are allowed to join the army at the end of two years; their whole service (two years for each at the school) being therefore reduced to six years.
Young men, on the other hand, who show no disposition or likelihood 347 to turn out good under officers, are sent off to complete the usual time as privates.
The proportion of non-commissioned officers in the standing army who are taken from the School Division was not easy to ascertain. It differs extremely in different regiments. In one, it was stated that out of the ordinary complement of 180, fifty came from hence. On the other hand, it was asserted that the general proportion was not more than one in forty. A certain number have obtained commissions; but no prospect of such promotion appears to be held out, and any tendency to carry forward the studies with a view to it is discouraged and checked.
The buildings, in the outskirts of Potsdam, are large, new, and handsome, forming three sides of a spacious court or imperfect quadrangle. The dining-rooms are used also as exercise-rooms, and it was made a point to let us see a portion of the pupils go through their gymnastics and exercises; and more particularly their sword and bayonet exercise. Twenty or thirty young men, very healthy and strong-looking, went through the latter exercise in two lines; after which came a single combat with the bayonet, all under the direction of an officer.
The sleeping-rooms are fairly large, and well ventilated, on the same floor. Twelve slept in each. During the day the wooden bedsteads are placed one above another. It was said that iron bedsteads are being generally introduced. Each young soldier is provided with a small cupboard above his bed. The non-commissioned officers had horsehair, the young men themselves straw paillasses. There was a stove in the room, but it was said not to be used.
The school-rooms are on the upper floor. The skeleton maps already referred to were here produced; one, of the two hemispheres, others illustrating Prussian history, showing the original size of the Prussian territory, its extent and condition under Frederick the Great, the whole course of its gradual extention, &c., very fairly drawn, and creditable to the young men.
The time devoted to the training which is given in the School Division appears long. What is now done in three years might as well be done in half that time. The object, however, is secured of retaining the service of the men during a lengthened period in the standing army.
The Regimental Schools are chiefly intended to train up non-commissioned officers. This is more particularly the case in the artillery, 348 which does not obtain its under officers from the School Division at Potsdam.
The Noble-School at Liegnitz is merely an endowed school, founded by the Emperor Joseph I. while Silesia was yet an Austrian dependency, and specially intended for young men of good birth in that country. There are some military foundations in the school for the sons of officers of good birth; and the two military men who take part in the instruction are paid by the state, on the same footing as officers employed in the State Military Schools.
[Of one of the Institutions above described (The Artillery and Engineers’ School at Berlin) we shall give a fuller account, and in the meantime we close this comprehensive survey of military instruction in Prussia with the following reflections of the English Commissioners.]
1. Attention has often been drawn to the peculiar feature of Prussian Military Education, the double examination for the rank of officer. The principle adopted seems to be the exaction of a proof from all officers that they have received a good, general, and professional education, rather than the selection of a smaller number for higher training in a military school. The decree of 1808 first laid down the rule for the whole army, “that the only title to an officer’s commission shall be, in a time of peace, education and professional knowledge,—in time of war, distinguished valor and ability.”
2. The spirit of emulation is not so much called out in Prussia as it is in France. Early distinctions are acknowledged and appealed to, but somewhat sparingly. The following words express the view taken on this point:—
“A testimonial of fitness for the University,” says Colonel von Holleben, (i.e., to have passed the Abiturient examination) “dispenses with the examination for the ensigncy. In consequence of this rule fifty Abiturients on an average annually enter the army. These, as well as the Selectaner of the Cadet Corps, must be considered in point of scientific education, an excellent supply of officers.”
3. It will be seen that in the above words there is no reference to those rewards and advantages which are the stimulus of competition. 349 There appears some want in this respect both in the earlier and later training of officers. Thus, in the instance of the Cadet House, there are numerous free places, but these are assigned to young men, not from any proof of merit or exertion, but entirely because they are the sons of officers or state servants. The most distinguished pupils, the Selectaner gain nothing more than to be permitted to pass these two examinations before, instead of after, entering the army. Honorable mention, is, however, made of the candidates for commission who distinguish themselves in the Division Schools. But in the Staff School—the natural resource of energetic young officers—the competition (which the school asserts as its principle by its entrance examination) loses some of its force, by the order of the pupils on leaving the school not being distinctly marked. It should be mentioned as an explanation of these facts, that in the general civil education of Prussia, competition is little encouraged, less than in our own, and far less than in the French, or even in the Austrian education.
4. The military system of Prussia, and in some degree its military education also, appear to have various objects in view. Thus the Cadet Houses, where the free places are chiefly given to the sons of military men, seem intended to keep up a military esprit de corps, and it is impossible not to be struck by the strong class spirit prevailing in the Prussian army. At the same time means are taken, as above stated, to obtain a good supply of highly educated officers.
5. Prussian military education seems to have been constantly correcting and extending itself. Of this the Division Schools are a striking example; and they deserve attention, both because their plan is peculiar to Prussia, and for the improvements they have received. The Prussians at first established numerous Division Schools, but they afterwards greatly diminished their number; and the general inspector of military education now contemplates, both for the sake of the instructors and their pupils, a further reduction to three or four. A large military school in three or four towns in Prussia, intended to teach professional knowledge to young officers after some short practical experience in the army, is thought a better mode of giving such knowledge than to place isolated, or few teachers, in regiments or army divisions.
6. One chief means of improvement has been the bringing the whole education under a single head. At first there were distinct boards for the examinations in Prussia, and for the schools, with a view to maintain the independence of each. It was found, however, 350 that this led to a want of harmony between the schools and the examinations; and accordingly, whilst the board of examiners and the school professors are kept perfectly distinct, they are both subjected to the general inspector, who controls all the departments of military education. The effect of this has been to give more unity to all the teaching; an essential point where that teaching is entirely on the same subjects. By constant inspection of the schools, and the receipt of periodical reports from them, the general inspector of military education is able to compare the results of each, and to keep the whole system going at an even rate of progress.
7. Attention should be drawn to the somewhat complicated system for working the Military Schools in Prussia. There are two distinct boards, as we have noticed above, the supreme board of studies and the examinations board, one of which reports to the inspector-general on all examinations, whilst the other acts as his assessors and advisers with regard to the schools and on all other subjects of military education. Besides these bodies, each school has its own board of studies, which is generally formed by some one person belonging to the school, combined with distinguished officers or professors. Suggestions with regard to each school appear to originate chiefly from these latter bodies.
8. The department of military examinations and education is under the control of the general inspector, who “lays his proposals on matters of administration before the minister of war, but reports directly to the king in all matters relating to instruction and examinations.”
351The object of the Artillery and Engineer School is to give to such young men of the Artillery and Engineers as have been found fitted for promotion, the education necessary for the proper performance of the duties of a Subaltern Officer, and to enable them to draw profit afterwards from their private studies and the practice of the service.
The complete course of study lasts two years and three quarters. The instruction is divided into three courses, bearing the name of cœtus; on joining the institution, the young men enter the first cœtus. Before the commencement of the studies, that is, about the 1st of October, the General Inspectors of the two corps direct the young men who are to enter the school to come up from their regiments and divisions. They receive their pay and clothing from their regiments until they are promoted to the rank of Officer.
The first nine months of each year of study are principally devoted to theoretical instruction, the three last exclusively to practice. In the third cœtus, the course finishes with the theoretical instruction on the 1st of July.
The instruction of the first cœtus is directed to prepare the students for the ordinary Officers’ Examination, and at the same time to enable them to follow with advantage the further studies of the school. The instruction, during the first year, is common to all the students. Those who pass the Officers’ Examination enter at the commencement of the second year into the second cœtus.
In the second cœtus the greater portion of the instruction, but not the whole, is common to the two arms. In the third cœtus an almost entire separation of studies takes place.
In all the studies which are common to the two arms, if the number of students is too great for a single class, parallel classes are established.
352The Curatorium of the School is composed of the General Inspectors of the two corps. To it belongs the authority of issuing orders and regulations; no important change in these can be made without its sanction.
The General Inspector of Military Instruction receives yearly at fixed periods, reports upon the state and progress of the school.
The accounts are under the control of the War Department, with which the Director of the School is in immediate communication. Questions of principle and unforeseen cases of importance are decided by the Curatorium.
The Inspector of the School, who is an Engineer Officer when the Director is an Artillery Officer, and vice versâ, has the immediate oversight of it. It is his duty to see that the orders and regulations are strictly followed.
The Director is appointed by the King. He is a Field Officer of either Artillery or Engineers, and has the rank of Commandant of a regiment. He has as assistant, a Captain appointed by the Curatorium. The Director is immediately responsible for the discipline and the finance of the establishment, and conducts its ordinary details, assisted by the Captain. He is also President of the Board of Studies; as such he exercises a general control over the instruction, and regulates the ordinary examinations.
Under the Director and the Board of Studies are four officers, three taken from the Artillery and one from the Engineers. They have the immediate charge of the students, and are themselves under the direct orders of the Captain.
The duties of Paymaster, Librarian, &c., are divided among them. They must also give at least two hours of instruction weekly to the pupils.
The Board of Studies consists of the Director of the Institution as President, and usually of the Senior Master of Mathematics, and the Instructors of Artillery and Engineering in the third cœtus. In equal numbers are likewise added Superior Officers of the Artillery and Engineers appointed by the Curatorium. The duty of the Board is to control the whole of the instruction, and to give an opinion when required, upon the performance and capacities of the teachers and students.
353The teachers are to be selected as much as possible from among the Officers of Artillery and Engineers. Where this can not be effected, civilians of proved ability and experience are to be appointed.
The number of teachers is to be arranged with reference to the amount and extent of the studies, in such a manner that in the event of illness among them, no interruption in the instruction may arise. In addition to the teachers, there is a certain number of assistant-teachers, partly civilians, partly taken from among the fireworkers of the Artillery. The latter are employed under the Librarian, and in the practical instruction; they may also, in case of necessity, assist as clerks.
THE STUDENTS.
The maximum number of students who enter each year is 80; 60 from the Artillery, and 20 from the Engineers. In addition, a few young men may be received from the smaller German States. In the event of the number from one corps being short, an increased number may be admitted from the other.
The number in the second cœtus is variable. It consists, first, of the students previously in the first cœtus who have passed the Officers’ Examination; and, secondly, of such young officers as are appointed to the Institution by the General Inspectors.
The students of the first cœtus lodge, as far as room will admit, in the school buildings; the remainder, as well as the ensigns of the second cœtus, not yet promoted to officers, are quartered in a neighboring building. At least two of the direction officers lodge in the school buildings; a third lodges in the other.
The Director may grant permission to a student, as a matter of favor, to lodge with his parents.
The students quartered in the school and the neighboring building dine together in the mess-room of the school.
The officers (students) of the second and third cœtus live in lodgings in the town, and mess where they choose.
ENTRY INTO THE SCHOOL, AND PASSAGE THROUGH IT.
The entry into the first cœtus of the institution is conditional on the applicant having passed, in the manner officially prescribed, the examination for ensign. The necessary certificates are forwarded to the Director of the School.
The instruction in the first cœtus embraces in general the subjects 354 required for the ordinary Officers’ Examination, that is to say, the elements of Military Science, so far as every Subaltern Officer is obliged to know them. To this is to be added instruction in mathematics, in French, and in free sketching.
At the commencement of the instruction the teachers inspect the whole of the Ensign-Examination papers of the newly-arrived students, which are laid before them by the Director, in order the better to judge of their acquirements. During the first quarter they take pains to ascertain the ability as well as the amount of acquirements of each student, so as to be able to give a confident opinion upon him at the end of the quarter.
After the close of the first quarter a conference of the teachers, under the presidence of the Director, takes place, to form a report upon the students, and to furnish data for recommendations to the rank of ensign of such students as have given satisfaction by their conduct and progress. The students about whom the teachers have not yet been able to speak confidently, who, in certain studies, as in mathematics and the special branches of their arm, are behind-hand, as well as those whose conduct has not been without blame, are proposed to the higher authorities for permission to continue to remain at the school. On the other hand, the Board of Studies proposes for dismissal from the institution, students whose conduct has been unsatisfactory, and principally who give too little hope of a favorable career. The Board is to express an opinion whether any prospect may be held out of a future recall to the institution, according as its unfavorable report has been founded on the want of ability or on the want of industry of the student.
The students favorably reported on are immediately, by the General Inspectors, appointed ensigns, subject to vacancies. The Curatorium decides regarding the further stay at the institution, or the dismissal of the others.
After the end of the second quarter, those pupils who can not yet be recommended for promotion to ensign are only in special cases allowed to remain till the end of the theoretical instruction of this year; if they can not then be recommended, they are sent back to their regiments.
Fourteen days before the close of the theoretical instruction for the year, that is to say, about the middle of June, the teachers give an opinion regarding each student of the first cœtus, as to whether or not they consider him capable of undergoing the Officers’ Examination, and to pass into the second cœtus. These reports, joined to that of the Director, as regards the conduct of the students, 355 enable the Board of Studies to propose to the higher authorities either that permission may be granted to undergo the Officers’ Examination, (and, if successful, to enter the second cœtus,) or that the student be sent back to his corps. Students who have been refused permission on grounds not altogether unpardonable, from presenting themselves for the Officers’ Examination, or who in the course of instruction have been sent for any reason to their corps, with the prospect of being afterwards called back to the school, may, on the proposition of the Board of Studies, through the Curatorium, be granted a second and final entrance into the first cœtus.
The Curatorium decides in every case whether a student who has not qualified himself for entry into the second cœtus, may return to the first cœtus after having left the institution, or in case he shall have in the meantime passed the Officers’ Examination, whether he may, as an exceptional case, enter the second cœtus. In a case of the latter kind, the applicant can not present himself for the Officers’ Examination without having previously passed a preliminary examination at the school, to do which, the permission of the General Inspector of his corps is necessary.
The theoretical course closes at the end of June. During the month of July the students of the first cœtus are employed in surveying operations. It is during this month that the examination for the rank of officer before the General Examining Board takes place. The students who pass this examination enter afterwards into the second cœtus; those who fail are, at the expiration of the practical course of their year, sent back to their corps.
The students who pass the Officers’ Examination, and are found qualified to enter the second cœtus, are then proposed for election to the officers of their corps. If the decision be favorable, their names are submitted by the General Inspectors to the King, to be appointed, on vacancies occurring, to the rank of Supernumerary (Ausseretatsmässigen) Second Lieutenant.
To assist the Officers of the Corps in making their election, an extract of the reports above alluded to is sent to them, so far as it concerns the students who have successfully passed their Officers’ Examination.
It is an indispensable condition for entering the second cœtus, that, if a student of the first cœtus, he should have passed the Officers’ Examination, or if he should now enter the school for the first time, that he should have the rank of Officer. The sum of acquirements necessary for the Officers’ Examination forms the basis of the 356 instruction given in the second cœtus. In it the instruction ceases to be entirely common to the two arms.
At the end of the theoretical course of the second cœtus, a report of progress and conduct is drawn up, as in the first cœtus, by the Board of Studies, on the data furnished by the teachers as regards the studies, and by the Director as concerns the conduct of the students. In forwarding this report to the Curatorium, it is stated for each student whether or not he is considered qualified to pass the former part of the Special Corps Examination. Those who are unfavorably spoken of in this respect return to their corps, if there are no mitigating circumstances which permit a further stay in the second cœtus, following the decision of the Curatorium. They may either endeavor to obtain a transfer into another branch of the army, or by study and good conduct prepare themselves for admission into the third cœtus at a future period. But in this case they must not only be recommended by their corps, but they must also pass the former part of the Special Corps Examination.
The students recommended to present themselves for the former part of the Special Corps Examination undergo it before a Board appointed by the chiefs of the two corps in the beginning of July. It extends over the subjects of professional science which have been taught in the second cœtus. A particular regulation defines the mode of this examination, which is entirely written; it decides whether the student shall enter or not into the third cœtus.
The successful students pass, by direction of the Curatorium, into the third cœtus, while the unsuccessful ones, as well as those who have been reported unfit to undergo the examination, return to their corps. By good conduct and study they may obtain permission to come up again at the next examination for the former part of the Special Examination. Their definite return to the school depends upon their passing this examination, and upon the express order of the Curatorium.
The instruction in the third cœtus is chiefly directed to supply the special scientific knowledge required by each of the two arms. The students of the two corps, therefore, receive separate instruction. A further object of the instruction is to enable the students to make use of the knowledge which they have acquired, on which account instruction and practical application go hand in hand. Practice and theory go thus together in this the highest portion of the instruction, so that they both terminate at the same time, namely, at the end of the month of June.
357Previous to leaving the School, the latter part of the Special Corps Examination is undergone before the same Board as for the former part. This examination tests their qualifications in their special arm, and proves their fitness for Artillery or Engineer Officers. The results of this part of the examination and of the former part of it passed at the close of the second cœtus, are combined by the Board, and forwarded to the Curatorium. Along with these reports is submitted a proposition for those who have passed the examinations to be admitted into their corps. In the preparation of patents (for commissions) they are antedated to the time of passing the Officers’ Examinations, proper regard being had to the results of the Special Corps Examination for arranging the officers among each other.
Any officer who does not pass the Special Corps Examination, remains with the pay of an infantry officer in his corps until he either enters into another arm, or having obtained permission to re-enter the third cœtus, he qualifies himself for the final examination. A successful passing of the Special Corps Examination at this second trial can give, under the most favorable circumstances, no higher seniority than that of immediately after the officers who have passed their examination the previous year.
The general instruction may be divided into—
1. The theoretical part, designed with the view to the practical professional requirements of the students, and their further self-improvement.
The instruction ranges over—
(a.) Artillery.
(b.) Military Engineering.
(c.) Hydraulic Construction.
(d.) Elements of Tactics.
(e.) History of the Art of War.
(f.) Mathematics.
(g.) Theory of Surveying.
(h.) Physics.
(i.) Chemistry.
(k.) French Language.
(l.) Rules and Regulations of the Service.
(m.) The Horse.
(n.) Plan Drawing.
(o.) Free Sketching.
(p.) Descriptive Geometry.
(q.) Artillery Drawing.
(r.) Artillery Constructions Drawing.
(s.) Fortification Drawing.
(t.) Architectural Drawing.
2. The practical part of the instruction, designed by a series of practical exercises to exhibit the application of the theory taught and to extend the knowledge previously acquired.
The practical part includes—
(a.) Visits to the Military Establishments and Institutions in Berlin and Spandau, examination of the objects, collections, models, &c., which they contain.
(b.) Chemical manipulation.
(c.) Examination of raw materials, of cannon, limbers, and ammunition wagons, of shot and shells, and of small-arms.
(d.) Management of machines.
(e.) Practical exemplification of the rules for placing guns with reference to the ground, and to tactical considerations.
(f.) Marking out and tracing batteries and field-works.
(g.) Drawings from Artillery objects, and from buildings, &c.
(h.) Being present at the practical operations of the Engineer Division of the Guards.
(i.) Solution of problems in the attack and defense of fortresses.
(k.) Practice in elementary tactics.
(l.) Practical surveying.
(m.) Artillery practice.
3. A course of Military and Gymnastic Exercises, requisite to prepare Officers for active military service.
They are divided into—
(a.) Exercises on foot.
(b.) Exercises with the different kinds of guns in position.
(c.) Fencing and gymnastics.
The theoretical studies commence each year on the 1st of October, and end on the 30th of June. They may be reckoned, after deducting the vacation and holidays, to include a period of thirty-five weeks.
As a general rule, the studies take place only in the forenoon, namely, during the five hours between eight and one o’clock. Occasionally only are there hours of study for a small part of the students in the afternoon. A portion of the afternoons, during the theoretical course, are employed for drills and practice, but in no case more than twice a week, in order that the students may have the necessary time for recreation. The students are required (those who are officers excepted) to remain in their quarters in the evening, to prepare the work which has been allotted to them by the teachers.
The parallel classes of each cœtus, with the exception of the drawing classes, are, as a general rule, to be under the same teacher.
The theoretical instruction is distributed as follows:
359AMOUNT OF STUDIES, WEEKLY.
Art. Artillery.
Eng. Engineers.
NATURE OF STUDY. | 1st Cœtus. Art. and Eng. |
2d Cœtus. | 3d Cœtus. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Art. | Eng. | Art. | Eng. | ||
Artillery, | 4 | 3 | 8 | 0 | |
Military Engineering, | 4 | 3 | 0 | 10 | |
Hydraulic Construction, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Elements of Tactics, | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
History of the Art of War, | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
Mathematics, | 6 | 6 | { In two divisions } 4 |
||
Theory of Surveying, | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Physics, | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | |
Chemistry, | |||||
Lectures, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | |
Manipulations, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | |
French Language, | 2 | 2 | 2 | ||
Rules and Regulations of the Service, | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
The Horse, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Plan Drawing, | 4 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 |
Free Sketching, | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Descriptive Geometry, | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
Artillery Drawing, | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 |
Artillery Construction Drawing, | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Fortification Drawing, | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | |
Architectural Drawing, | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 |
30 | 32 | 34 | 31 | 36 |
REMARKS.
In the first cœtus.—All the instruction in this class is common to the two arms, and is equally divided among the six forenoons of the week.
In the first and second cœtus.—With reference to the mathematical instruction, it is particularly ordained, that each of the two mathematical teachers shall give instruction to the same students in the first and second cœtus, so that the one who teaches in the first cœtus one year, teaches in the second cœtus the year following.
In the second cœtus:—
1. The larger portion of the instruction, as the table shows, is common; in Plan Drawing the only difference is that the Engineers receive two hours’ additional instruction.
2. The instruction in French, for a select number of the most advanced students only, takes place on two afternoons.
3. The instruction in Free Sketching for the Engineers takes place also on two afternoons.
In the third cœtus:—
1. About one-half only of the instruction in this class is common; in Plan Drawing the Engineers have one hour more instruction a week.
2. The Chemical Manipulations (in which a very small number only of the students share) take place on two afternoons.
3603. The instruction in French, in which only those already selected in the second cœtus take part, also is given on two afternoons.
4. For mathematical instruction the class is formed into two divisions. The first consists of those pupils who, in the opinion of the teachers, are able to follow profitably the instruction in the higher mathematics. The remainder form the second division, and go over a second time what they have already learned, to which is added a variety of questions in applied mathematics, important to the Artillery and the Engineers.
TENOR OF THE STUDIES IN GENERAL.
First Cœtus.
Artillery.—Elementary Description of all the matériel of the Prussian Artillery, and of the basis of its arrangement. Effect of the different natures of guns, and the simplest rules for their employment.
General Military Engineering.—The elements of field and permanent fortification. The principles of the attack and defense of fortresses. General notions on the construction of military bridges.
Tactics.—General organization of an army. Formation of the different kinds of troops. Fundamental rules for the placing, moving, and fighting of the separate arms, as well as their combination. Occupation of ground. Attack and defense of positions. Field-service.
Mathematics.—Algebra and Arithmetic. Simple and higher equations. Progression series. The binomial theory for integral exponents. Series of powers and logarithms. Analytical trigonometry. Plane and analytical geometry. Plane trigonometry.
French Language.—Translation from French into German, with parsing.
Rules and Regulations.—Official correspondence, with examples. Discipline. Military code. Courts-martial. Courts of honor. Service in and out of garrison.
Plan Drawing.—Theory of representing ground. Principles of topography. Surveying. Drawing from copies and simple models. Knowledge and description of the different conventional marks.
Free Sketching.—Drawing of straight lines, broken lines, and angles. First principles of figure drawing. Hatching with black chalk. More difficult studies in figure drawing.
Second Cœtus.
Artillery.—Description of the organization of the Prussian Artillery. Rules for the employment of artillery in the field and in sieges.
Special Military Engineering.—Extension of the course of field and permanent fortification, given in the first cœtus. Extension of the instruction on sieges. Formation of camps. Specialities of military engineering, in so far as it is of interest to artillerists.
History of the Art of War.—History in early times, in a very general manner; that in the middle ages, as they approach modern times, in greater detail; in modern times, very fully. Organization of the armies and mode of conducting war at each remarkable period, illustrated by the description of some campaigns and great battles.
361Mathematics.—Solid geometry. Spherical trigonometry. The theory of projections. Theory of co-ordinates and conic sections. Statics, geostatics, and hydrostatics.
Physics.—General properties of bodies. Laws of the equilibrium of solid, fluid, and aëriform bodies. Heat. Application of steam and gases. Measurement of heights. Hygrometry. Acoustics. Optics. Magnetism, Electricity. Electro-magnetism. Magneto-electricity.
French Language.—Exercises in translating German into French, for a select number of pupils, about one-third of the whole.
Artillery Drawing.—Use of drawing instruments and scales. Drawing of the matériel of the artillery, and principally of the separate parts of an object in different views and sections, to a certain scale, without the original.
Artillery Constructions Drawing.—Construction of the different limbers, gun-carriages, &c., and the principles of their arrangement, forms, proportions, and admeasurements; in greater part, however, intended only as illustrations of the rules of perspective.
Fortification Drawing.—Instruction in the composition of drawings; the practice includes representations of projects of fortresses and their details in plan and section, and in cavalier’s perspective (bird’s-eye view); both etched and shaded with Indian ink, and colored. The chief object is to qualify the pupils to understand, and to prepare correctly, drawings and plans of objects in field and permanent fortification.
Plan Drawing.—Further practice in drawing of ground, with objects, buildings, &c., marked in black and colors. Further progress in geodesy. Sketches and reconnaissances.
Architectural Drawing.—Perspective. Drawings of architectural decoration in outline, with the lines of shadow, but without further detail.
Free Sketching.—Further figure-drawing. Landscapes and the drawing of ornaments, for the more skillful students.
Descriptive Geometry.—The theory of descriptive geometry. Projections of various bodies in space, upon planes. Drawing according to proportional scales. Theory of light and shade of drawings.
Third Cœtus.
Artillery.—History and Literature of artillery. Review of the general relations of the artillery system in the principal states of Europe. Scientific basis of artillery objects, and their technical description. Theory of the parabola and of projectiles. Organization and employment of artillery, considered in its highest point of view.
Exclusive Military Engineering.—Special application of the rules for sieges under given circumstances more or less connected. Complete instruction in building, and its application shown by projects for given sites.
Hydraulic Constructions.—General principles of the science. Knowledge of the construction of such works, of which the principles should be known to engineer officers. In this is chiefly to be considered fascine work for the protection of the banks of rivers and canals, the construction of bridges and sluices, and the laying the foundation of heavy masonry in water.
Mathematics.—(For the first division, about a quarter of the class.)—Differential and integral calculus. The higher geometry. Analytical mechanics and hydraulics.
(For the second division, about three-quarters of the class.)—Repetition of the most important part of the studies already gone through in the first and second cœtus, with practical useful problems. Mechanics and hydraulics, as well as some instruction necessary for artillerists, but so as not to require the higher analysis, and more of a practical than of a theoretical nature.
Chemistry (Instruction.)—The necessary preliminary knowledge of theoretical principles. Treatise of separate substances (of the metalloids and their indifferent combinations, of the acids, of the metals,) all illustrated by experiments. 362 To conclude with a survey of the composition and alteration of the surface of the globe from a chemical point of view.
(Manipulation.)—Instruction in the principles of qualitative chemical analysis, illustrated by experiments. Manipulation by the students under the superintendence of the instructor. Instruction in the principles of quantitative analysis. Analysis by the students, of substances employed by the artillery. (Only four or five of the best qualified take part in these experiments.)
French Language.—Select conversation (only for the already selected students in the second cœtus.)
The Horse.—Natural history and anatomy of the horse. Good and bad points. Food. Internal and external sickness, with the mode of discovery and cure of the same, as far as practicable, by the means to be had on actual service. Shoeing.
Artillery Drawing.—Continuation of the instruction. Matériel of the artillery, represented as combined artillery objects, partly on a given scale, partly drawn from a real object, by the more skillful students.
Artillery Construction Drawing.—Construction of each description of cannon. Principles of their forms, proportions, and sizes. Problems on the construction of existing and not existing guns, carriages, &c. Construction of the artillery matériel of foreign powers.
Fortification Drawing.—Projects of field fortification, to be constructed of earth, or of earth and gabions, with application to the nature of the ground. Drawings with the use of Von Prittwitz’ copies of the fortification of places, as a continuation of the fortification drawings begun in the second cœtus. For all these exercises in projects and drawings, the concert of the teacher of exclusive engineering is required.
Plan Drawing.—Practice in copying and reducing large plans. Drawing of plans of battles with the position of the troops, and of plans of sieges, with the trenches and batteries.
Architectural Drawing.—Architecture in its application to military buildings, done in India ink. Finally, practical exercises in copying buildings.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
These are carried on, as has been already remarked, in part during the nine months of theoretical instruction, on some of the afternoons, but they principally take place during the three summer months of July, August, and September, in the forenoon. They commence early in the morning, and often last till the afternoon, on which account there are no evening hours of study during this period. As the students of the third cœtus return to their corps at the beginning of July, those of the first and second cœtus only take part in this practice. The visits to the Fortress and Military Establishments of Spandau, and the preparation of projects of military constructions, and of reconnaissances, must be made during the period of theoretical instruction. It is therefore suspended for one day for the students of the first cœtus, and for three days for the Artillery, and five days for the Engineer students of the third cœtus.
The distribution of time for each cœtus is as follows:
363Art. Artillery.
Eng. Engineers.
DURING THE NINE MONTHS OF THEORETICAL INSTRUCTION. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of Days employed. | |||||
1st Cœtus. Art. and Eng. |
2d Cœtus. | 3d Cœtus. | |||
Art. | Eng. | Art. | Eng. | ||
Visits to the Artillery Workshops, | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
To the Collection of Arms in the Arsenal | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
To the Models of Fortresses in do. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
To the Ordnance, Gun-carriages, Ammunition-wagons, &c., in do. | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
To the Foundry and Boring Machinery | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
To the Iron-foundry, and to one of the large Manufactories of Machinery in Berlin, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
To the Fortress of Spandau, the Powder-mill, and Small-arm Factory, | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Working in the Laboratory | 12 | 12 | 12 | 0 | 0 |
Examination of Ordnance, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
Examination of Gun-carriages, and Ammunition-wagons, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 |
Examination of Shot and shell | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
Examination of Small-arms, | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Practical representation of the Rules for placing Guns: | |||||
With reference to the ground, | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
On given tactical conditions, | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 |
Solution of problems in the art of Sieges, with reference to an actual fortress and the country surrounding it (Spandau,) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 5 |
Practice in Elementary Tactics, | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Drawings of Ordnance, Carriages, &c. | 0 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Drawings of Buildings, &c. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 |
Practice in Geodesy, | 12 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
DURING THE REMAINING THREE MONTHS. | |||||
Practice in Geodesy, | 16 | 28 | 32 | Nil. | |
Practice in Fortification of the 1st cœtus, with the Engineers of the Guard | 12 | 0 | 0 | “ | |
Practice in Fortification of the 2d cœtus, | 0 | 10 | 10 | “ | |
Visits to the Models of Fortresses in the Model-house, | 0 | 2 | 2 | “ | |
Gun Practice, proof of gunpowder, the management of machines, &c. | 14 | 14 | 14 | “ |
Remarks.—The employment of time in the last three months above given, requires the whole of the months of July and August, and about the first third of the month of September, after deducting fourteen days for the Officers’ Examination for the first cœtus, and occasional days lost through bad weather. The remaining two-thirds of September are given for vacation, as well to afford recreation to the teachers and students as to allow of the repairing and cleansing of the school-buildings.
MILITARY AND GYMNASTIC EXERCISES.
The month of October is appointed by the Director to the fitting and making uniform the regimental clothing brought with the students 364 from their corps. Military exercises then take place once a week for two hours in the afternoon, till the 1st of April, or for about five months.
The military exercises are carried on under officers of the garrison, namely, a Captain and two Lieutenants of the Artillery of the Guard. They put themselves in communication with the Director to arrange the time, nature, and extent of the exercises.
The exercises consist of—
1. Exercises on Foot.—The whole of the first cœtus here take part, but only so many of the second Cœtus as are required as non-commissioned officers. Considering the composition of the squad, (Artillery and Engineers,) and the object of the exercise, the perfection of the students in company-drill is less to be attempted than the endeavor to give to each a good position and carriage in the front as well as in the ranks, and more particularly to accustom them to military order and precision.
2. Exercises with different descriptions of Guns in Position.—In preference, the light field-pieces of the year 1842 are to be used for drill, and correct, united and prompt execution required. With the siege-guns, every student is instructed and practiced with at least one calibre of each nature.
In addition to their military exercises, there are also—
3. Fencing and Gymnastics.—In these exercises the students of the first cœtus only take part, and for two hours of the afternoon each week, during the first six months. There is neither time nor appliances to admit of the students arriving at a high state of excellence. The practice in fencing is only intended to give confidence in the use of arms, that in gymnastics to produce activity, and to afford bodily exercise to young men much occupied in study.
EXAMINATIONS AND CENSURES.
In addition to the several examinations already enumerated, by which the fitness of the students for a certain rank or for promotion into a higher cœtus is shown, some other examinations take place.
1. For the purpose of enabling the Director and the Board of Studies to learn the progress of each separate student, and to confirm by their own knowledge the opinion given by the teachers, there is twice in each quarter an oral repetition of some portion of such instruction in the first and second cœtus. The period of the examination is previously named by the Director.
2. To give a general view of the progress of the entire year, and 365 to incite the students to study, a public oral examination of those in the first cœtus takes place at the close of the theoretical instruction, in presence of the higher authorities of the school, superior officers of the two arms, and other persons interested.
As a further incitement to the students, and as a warning to those whose diligence or conduct has not been satisfactory, the quarterly “censures” are read out to the assembled cœtus. In general the names of the students are not mentioned, a number known to the individual only being used instead. The best pupils are, however, openly commended by name.
In the first cœtus, on the other hand, those pupils who have obtained very bad “censure” are mentioned by name.
The annual expense of the School is fixed at 16,049 dollars. The sum is distributed as follows:—
Personal. | ||
---|---|---|
Salaries and allowances of Teachers | 10,731 | |
Pay and allowances of the Staff, | 3,478 | |
14,209 | ||
Practical exercises, | 520 | |
School necessaries, | 720 | |
Keeping up materials for instruction, | 110 | |
Cleansing the rooms | 130 | |
Lighting, | 100 | |
Bureau expenses, | 210 | |
Covering unforeseen expenses, | 50 | |
1,800 |
In the event of war, and if the instruction is suspended for an indeterminate period, the salaries of the civil teachers cease. Application is not to be made to the King for the grant of a provisional indemnity, except under very peculiar circumstances.
The payment of the salaries and allowances is made monthly and in advance.
The administration of the funds is directly under the supervision of the Director. The Treasurer carries out the details. The superior orders for the administration of royal grants are most strictly to be followed.
The annual accounts are forwarded by the Director to the War Department.
The property of the School consists of—
The Library, the Collection of Instruments and Models for Artillery and Engineers, the Collection of Physical Instruments, the Collection of Chemical Apparatus, and the School Utensils.
366The principal object of the Library is to serve as materials of instruction for the teachers and students, and the Officers of Artillery and Engineers present at the Institution. After that, as a center, for the collection of all the best works, old and new, on Artillery and Military Engineering.
The Director and Board of Studies take care that the instruments and apparatus for the studies are always kept complete and in good order. As the means of the school do not thoroughly admit of the collections keeping pace with the progress of science, special care is taken that at least the most necessary articles are not absent.
The utensils of the school are kept always complete, under the supervision of the Director.
The property of the school is examined yearly by the Director and Board of Studies, and a report to that effect sent in with the annual accounts.
367The instruction must commence with the first elements of the science, since the new arriving students have little preparatory knowledge. It must be carried on to such an extent that the pupil may be able, after going through the first cœtus, to pass his officer’s examination, and after the completion of the entire course, not only to show at his special examination that he possesses the positive knowledge required for the ordinary duties of the service, but also to prove that he is qualified for continuing his studies by himself.
The Engineer pupils who close their instruction in artillery at the end of the second cœtus, are to be instructed in the composition of artillery, in the effect and the use of cannon, but more especially in its employment in sieges.
From this general notice of the limits of the course it is evident that neither a perfect exposition of the theory nor complete practical exercises are expected. Still to train the students properly in the different directions which an artillery education requires, the instruction must not consist only in a theoretical lecture, but be aided by judicious directions for drawing, and be perfected by practical exercises. For the attainment of the two latter objects special prescriptions are given, to which we refer.
Instruction in artillery is closely connected with the lectures on mathematics, physics, chemistry, tactics, fortification, and veterinary science.
a. As special points may be mentioned, in mathematics, calculation of contents, and fixing the centers of gravity, of cannon and its parts; calculation of piles of shot; strength, direction, and distribution of recoil on the separate portions of a piece of ordnance; theory of machines, of carriages, of parabolic and projectile curves, and calculation of the flight of rockets. In all these cases the mathematical lecturer develops the necessary formulas for the artillery student, but their application belongs to the course of artillery.
b. In physics.—Explanation, notice, and determination of the specific gravities of the materials used in artillery. The law of gravity. The absolute and relative strength of woods and metals. Friction. Resistance of the air. Expansive power of gases, especially of those generated by gunpowder.
c. In chemistry.—The general laws of chemical action of bodies on one another. The simple elements of the materials used in artillery. The chemical properties of their combinations. The acids exhibited in the combustion of gunpowder and their action on metals; the processes used in the reduction and manufacture of metals up to the point where they are fit for use in artillery; chemical analysis of gunpowder and of the most common metal-alloys. The action of the atmosphere on substances exposed to it, which are used in artillery.
d. In tactics.—The organization and tactics of artillery, so far as they stand in direct relation to other arms. A complete account of the conduct of artillery when coöperating with other troops.
e. In fortification.—Everything referring to the tracing, the relief, and the 368 construction of fortifications; attack and defense of field-works by infantry and cavalry; complete exposition of the art of besieging, with a discussion of all the duties of an engineer, a sapper or miner, both in the attack and the defense of a fortress, also the use of infantry and cavalry in sieges, with the omission of the points specially belonging to artillery.
f. In the veterinary art.—The anatomy and physiology of the horse; general rules for feeding, treatment of diseases, and disinfection of the stables and utensils.
The instruction in the first cœtus must, as already mentioned, be so calculated, that the students at the end of the course of lessons may be able to satisfy perfectly the requirements of the Officer’s examination.
As a further prosecution of the same subjects of instruction in the second, and again in the third cœtus, would lead to a great loss of time and to tiresome repetitions, the lectures are to be so planned that the separate subjects to be treated in the first and second cœtus, taken together, are of sufficient extent for the Engineer pupils in general; the further developments necessary for the Artillery pupils are reserved in preference for the third cœtus.
The separate subjects of the lecture are—
1. Definition and distribution of arms.
2. Theory of gunpowder: component parts—manufacture—ignition—force. Proving. Storing. Transporting. Necessary precautions in manufacturing. Marks of damaged powder, and the possibility of restoration. Mention of the substances which may be used in place of gunpowder for various military purposes.
3. Cannon. Materials. Dispositions. Manufacture. Proving. Storing, and duration.
4. Gun-carriages. Limbers and other artillery carriages. General explanations on the construction of carriages, with particular reference to those used for artillery. Materials. Distribution and composition of gun-carriages. Limbers and wagons. Their examination and storing.
5. Military combustibles. Elementary notions. General account of laboratory work and regulations; also with reference to later proceedings in a laboratory, and, omitting all figures not absolutely necessary, a description of the preparation of fire-works, matches, ammunition both for artillery and for small-arms, signal lights, and particular kinds of combustibles. Their packing and storing.
6. The service, working, and moving of cannon, and of artillery carriages, with account and description of the machines in use by the Prussian artillery; but without special explanation of the official regulations.
7. Firing. Theory of the movement of projectiles, of the effect caused by their movement, and the mode of turning this action to the best account for military purposes. Elements of the theory of firing. Practice. Various descriptions of fire; their effect, and their employment for various sorts of guns.
8. Small and side-arms. Purpose and description of the composition and arrangement of small-arms. Their manufacture, storing, and the practical rules for their use. Purpose and description of side-arms. Fabrication, proving, effect, and use of them.
369The instruction in the second cœtus is a continuation of the lectures of the first cœtus, and embraces the use of artillery in the field and in sieges. Its object is to bring the Artillery students to that point, that they are able, at its close, to discharge satisfactorily the ordinary practical duties of the service, and be prepared to follow the course of the third cœtus, and to give to the Engineer students, who, in the third cœtus no longer receive instruction in artillery, all the knowledge of the subject required for their future profession. The instruction must therefore be complete enough for the Engineers, and give the Artilterist a solid and thorough preparation for the third cœtus.
Instruction in the second cœtus should comprise, in particular—
1. The organization of the artillery: purpose and considerations in the putting together of all parts of artillery material, both in tactical and administrative respects, with historical mention of the diversities of practice of other Powers.
2. The use of artillery in the field. Marching and tactical movements. Taking up position. The engagement itself, and conduct in some particular cases; for example, in defile fighting, in entrenchments, passage of rivers, &c.
3. Use of artillery in sieges:—
a. For Attack.
Planning and throwing up the batteries. Preparation and use of the different kinds of materials of construction. Different sorts of batteries. Methods of construction. Repairing of damaged batteries, and the calculation generally of all the materials necessary for constructing them.
Purpose and equipment of besieging batteries, with the preparations, special and general, for a regular attack.
Proceedings in the regular attack, and their modifications in irregular sorts of attack, occasioned by the situation of the fortress with reference to the surrounding ground, or by the special nature of the defenses.
Proceedings after capture, and when the siege is raised.
b. For Defense.
The equipment of the fortress. Determination of its artillery. Preparations in the fortress when it is declared in a state of siege. Conduct of the artillery in the regular attack, and against irregular modes of attack, as well as in particular cases, such as when in detached isolated works, when the place is relieved, or when the garrison fight its way out.
In the artillery course of the first and second cœtus, the students have gained a general knowledge of the materials of artillery, as well as its organization and use as an Arm; but the lectures were for the most part limited to what was of the greatest immediate consequence, viz., the description of the actual condition and relations of the Prussian artillery.
The object of the instruction given in the third cœtus is, on the one hand, to expose the scientific laws of artillery and its various parts, and, on the other, to track the historical development of the Arm, so as by this means, and by consideration of the constitution of foreign artilleries, to extend the views of the 370 students beyond our own practice, thus, to form their judgment, and induce them to think and contrive for themselves.
In the comparison of our own and foreign existing systems with the results of scientific considerations, the teacher should proceed with caution, and not raise in the young men the inclination to or the habit of crude and officious criticism. Investigation of things as they exist must, therefore, not confine itself to the mere search after defects; it can be only profitable when employed to test our own powers at improvements, and to discern thereby the difficulties and impediments that accompany them. The value which speculative reasoning has for the purposes of the artillery ought to be properly esteemed by the students, but, in face of the results of experience, not be estimated too highly; and in the comparison of different artilleries one with another, the influence must not be overlooked which the peculiarities and the history of a country ever exert on its institutions.
The final aim of the artillery instruction in the third cœtus must be a higher degree of preparation for the future practical ability of the students. As regards the material portion of the artillery, the students are to acquire a general knowledge of the construction, fabrication, and proving of the matériel, and for the tactical part, it is above all things to be made an object that they be made capable, by the instruction given them, of greater dexterity and confidence in dealing with special cases in the field or in siege operations.
The instruction commences with:—
1. Organization of the artillery service. The general relations of the artillery service are to be explained according to its different purposes, as an arm both in technical and administrative respects, then the principles for the organization of the service and of its separate portions in peace and war are to be developed, and comparison made with those carried out in the principal foreign artilleries.
At the same time, on the one hand, more details are to be gone into on the different branches of the artillery service (field, siege, fortress, and coast artillery, the technical and the administrative branches,) than was done in the second cœtus; and on the other, those considerations must be kept sight of in which the artillery appears as a portion of a greater whole, as in its relation to the Army and to the State.
2. Artillery, regarded as an arm. Since the elementary rules for the use of artillery in war have been given already in the second cœtus it will be the object in the third cœtus, first, to develop the principles of artillery tactics in the field, and in sieges, from an extended point of view, and then to apply the rules for the movements, placing in position and fighting of the artillery to the bodies now actually used in war, and to examine the great questions that may hence arise. For the field artillery, the tactics of single batteries and of masses of artillery and the collective relations of the artillery of a corps d’armée and of an army, must be shown. For sieges there will be less occasion to treat of the separate means of defense by artillery than of the various combinations under different circumstances, of its diversified applications.
To give this instruction its most practical tendency, historical examples of battles are to be taken, and not merely their results adduced, but the circumstances gone through in detail. These are to be compared with the rules previously given, and the causes and effects of any discrepancies, as far as practicable, and with caution, explained.
371Themes are then given out of campaigns and sieges, in working which the students are to show applications of tactical rules under given circumstances.
As regards the preparation for the field and the conduct in marches, quarters, camps, or bivouacs, what was necessary has already been taught in the second cœtus, as far as concerns a corps of artillery as large as a battery. In the third cœtus, therefore, only more extensive and important relations have to be explained.
Finally, as the students at the close of the third cœtus are to enter immediately into active service in the regiments, it will be useful to give them a general view of artillery duties in time of peace, of which no mention was made in the first and second cœtus, and to show the principles on which they rest. Further, the education of the men, the selection, management, and care of the artillery horses, instruction in riding and driving, the various exercises in serving and moving the guns, artillery practice, the different fatigue duties, conduct in manœuvres, detachments, &c., are to be particularly explained.
3. Artillery in a technical and administrative point of view. In the instruction given in the first and second cœtus, a descriptive notice only was given, as regards artillery material, of the arrangement and effect of what actually exists; and the reasons for this arrangement were added only so far as was necessary for this principal object.
In the third cœtus the pupils are to learn by the inductive process how, according to existing principles of natural science and of tactics, with the known mathematical and technical aids, artillery material must be contracted, manufactured, and proved, so as to obtain the desired end in the highest degree; and then our existing material and that of other countries are to be compared in the manner above stated with the results thus obtained.
To this end, in the lectures, first, the necessary explanations of artillery requirements are to be brought forward from the doctrine of mechanics; after that the fabrication, proving, and action of gunpowder are to be introduced; and finally, the construction, fabrication, and examination of cannon, carriages, and ammunition of the artillery and of small-arms.
Of course the details of powder-mills, of cannon foundries, of artillery workshops, of laboratories and small-arms manufactories, are here to be explained.
The action of projectiles and the mode of applying it, are to be scientifically explained, by the aid of the parabolic and projectile theory, as well as the principles upon which artillery experiments are to be conducted.
Finally, the principles of the management of the artillery material in the artillery dépôts are to be explained.
4. The course of instruction will be closed by an historical description of the progress of artillery, and by an historical review of its literature.
D. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TIME.
The total number of hours is, according to the constitution of the school—
For the | first cœtus, | 35 weeks of | 4 hours | = 140 hours. |
“ | second “ | 35 “ | 3 “ | = 105 “ |
“ | third “ | 35 “ | 8 “ | = 280 “ |
The exact number of hours dedicated to each division must be stated by the teacher in the first instance in his special plan for lessons, as they in part depend 372 upon his general experience. But, at all events, all the above-stated subjects for the first cœtus must be taught in the prescribed periods.
The lecture in the first cœtus must by no means be a mere mechanical preparation for the Officer’s examination; even here the understanding of the pupil is not to remain unoccupied, though the memory is to be had recourse to in a very high degree, and the historical form, that is, description of objects as they are, predominates.
The principles of the arrangements can only be taken up in their chief features, (partly because) time will not allow a farther advance, and partly because the progress of the students in the other studies is not yet sufficiently forward.
In the second cœtus the advantage has been obtained that the students have gained a knowledge of the entire material of artillery in its various relations, and the lecture gives, therefore, an introduction to the use of artillery in the field and in sieges; and with special regard to a fundamental knowledge of the details, and with the view to what is necessary to complete the Engineer pupil and make an efficient preparation of the Artillerist for the third cœtus, aims at a somewhat more scientific treatment, without going into the full comprehensive details reserved for the latter student. For the same reason, this portion of the lectures is confined nearly throughout to the explanation of existing conditions of our artillery, and only where the necessities of the Engineer student may demand it, can mention be made of the earlier material, or of the most important matters of foreign artilleries.
The instruction, therefore, of the first and second cœtus is directed more to the general and historical, that of the third cœtus, more to the special and scientific culture of the student; the materials were there collected which are here to be worked up.
From this general point of view proceed also the methods which are to be observed by the teachers in each cœtus.
The principal point to be kept hold of in all three cœtus is, that everything that can be shown the students, or which they can learn by their own manipulation, should be brought visibly before them, and as far as time and circumstances permit, should be actually put in practice. The material objects, in their actual state for use, must as often as possible be shown and explained, for which the Practical Exercises offer the best opportunity to which reference is here therefore made.
After these, a collection of models, diagrams, tables, and literary notices are necessary, which may be partly used for immediate instruction in the class, and partly furnished the pupils as a necessary and time-saving aid to the memory.
Deficiencies in these aids to the lectures are to be laid before the Direction and Board of Studies by the teacher, and supplied as far as the existing means allow.
Those cases in which the proceedings are fixed by certain regulations require special mention; for instance, the transport of powder, examination of cannon, drills, harnessing of horses, stable and camp service, &c.
All these regulations are grounded on certain principles, from which no deviation can take place without evil. The method of drawing them up is, however, variable, on which times and circumstances, and even the views of the superior authorities, have influence.
373It is, therefore, highly necessary that in this respect the essential be carefully in the instruction separated from the accidental, and by omitting the latter, not only gain time, but hinder that the students accustom themselves in a slovenly manner to look only to forms, and to seek in them the true being and life of artillery.
A true exposition of the principles on which these regulations rest ought not to be omitted from the lectures. They will suffice to prepare the students to act correctly in every case that occurs, for which actual service gives them, moreover, the separate instruction. The more completely the teacher keeps this point in view the less need he fear to form his pupils to immature critics, since the well-informed officer will more easily enter into the spirit of each such regulation, and more exactly carry it into execution for the benefit of the service, than he who has been accustomed to keep without reflection only to the dead letter; this, in the varied phases of practical life, will often enough leave him without guidance, unless he knows how to find it within himself.
As amongst the many existing class and hand-books for the artillery, none is entirely adapted to form a basis for the lectures, the formation of a special plan of lectures for each cœtus is indispensable, that the lecturer may have a defined path, and the students an assistance in their repetitions.
The lecture commences with the first principles of fortification, supposes no previous knowledge, and comprises—
(a.) Field fortification, attack and defense of a redoubt, communication in the field, and,
(b.) Permanent fortification, the art of besieging, with the example of a siege that has actually taken place.
In the first cœtus it must be so far carried out that the pupil is capable of passing his Officer’s examination according to the regulation of the 26th March, 1846. In the second cœtus the general knowledge of field and permanent fortification acquired in the first is carried on in such a degree as both Artillery and Engineer officers require to form a good foundation for the particular professional study of both arms in the third cœtus.
In the formation of the special plan of the lecture the instruction-regulations for artillery and exclusive engineering in the third cœtus are to be kept in view, so as to prepare for these subjects by the nature and the method of the instruction.
The principal contents of the lecture are—
a. In Field Fortification.
A correct description of the profile, the ground plan, the technical obstacles and modes of strengthening, the construction, and elementarily also, the use of field-works; attack and defense of a redoubt, and the military communications in the field, as roads, fords, and bridges.
b. In Permanent Fortification.
Exposition of the essential principles for plan and profile; acquaintance with the parts of a bastioned fortress with the outworks; special acquaintance with 374 a work on Vauban’s first system, and its improvements by Cormontaigne. Knowledge of the characteristics of the Italian, Dutch, and French fortification, of the ideas of Rimpler and Montalembert, as well as of the latest fortifications in Prussia; lastly, a knowledge of sieges as regards a regular attack and defense. The art of construction is taught to the Engineers in the third cœtus.
Applied art of fortification, and, namely, attack and defense of the various sorts of field-works, castrametation, permanent fortification, provisional fortification, and sieges. At their proper places, are to be introduced the precepts of military constructions which are suitable alike to the Artillerist and the Engineer, as well as the conduct of infantry and cavalry, and the duty of the Engineers in sieges.
Distribution of Time.
The first cœtus receives four, the second three hours weekly; therefore, in thirty-five weeks, the first 140, the second 105 hours. The number of hours which are to be dedicated to each portion will be indicated by the teacher in his special plan of the lectures, as it in part depends upon his experiences. All the above-named subjects must, however, be gone through within the prescribed period.
Before every principal division of the lectures, a general statement of its purport and essential principles is given; then follows a short historical exposition which is to explain the connection, the employment, and the thence arising conditions of the subject under consideration in reference to the other parts of the art of war.
The precepts hence deducible on the form of the parts of a fortification, and on the subsisting relations of fighting, are to form the latest and principal portion of each lecture.
The lecture is to be given in detail in such a manner, that its precepts may be deduced from one another in a way suited to the powers of perception of the pupils, and their mental powers accustomed to the carrying out of principles, rather than to a blind adherence to absolute regulations. To avoid repetition, the details of those doctrines which belong to different places are to be given only once, namely, where they are first required; and afterwards reference only made to them.
The military element, as indispensable both for the Artillerist and Engineer alike, is to be kept continually in view.
As regards the principal divisions, oral repetitions may be made from time to time for greater clearness; and, since individual and continued attention and self-reflection alone render a well-grounded progress in the student possible, written themes, besides those prescribed, are particularly recommended. It will not be necessary to submit each individual essay to a separate correction, but the teacher may content himself each time with giving a general view of important defects in the treatment of the subject, and then reading aloud one or more of the essays that have best succeeded, and showing by their analysis how the subject could be best treated.
In both cœtus, the existing models and full sized drawings in the school, as also the models in the arsenal, and for the second cœtus more especially the models of fortresses in the model-house, are to be used.
375The means employed to complete the instruction in both cœtus, are fortification drawing, practical exercise in field-works, and an inspection of the fortress of Spandau.
The lectures are given without any fixed hand-book, from manuscript drafts or notes.
The instruction in General Engineering in the first cœtus was intended to teach the Artillerist and Engineer so much of the art of fortification, of sieges, and of field-works as is requisite for officers of every arm, and is necessary for the students to pass their Officer’s examination.
In the second cœtus this instruction was enlarged, and connected with its application to field and permanent fortification, to such extent as the kindred arms of the artillery and engineer corps required equally to know, that they may execute effectually their separate duties in fortification and sieges.
The instruction in Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus is, however, intended solely for Engineers, as it teaches only professional matters which the engineer shares with no other arm of the service; while, on the other hand, the Artillerist receives a special instruction in those branches which are only necessary for the artillery officer.
Since the lectures would receive a too great and heterogeneous extension, if to them were to be added that portion of hydraulics which the engineer officer ought to know, without being immediately connected with his military constructions, and if further, civil architecture applied to military buildings was touched on, these subjects will be taught contemporaneously in the third cœtus by special instructors, and are therefore in the lectures on Exclusive Engineering not to pass the limits of that instruction. Their respective teachers must receive reciprocally special information of each other’s plan of lectures, and give mutual help by communications and inquiries where the studies might come into collision.
The teacher of the Exclusive Engineer class must learn the extent of those subjects of instruction which have been already treated in the lectures on Special Engineering in the second cœtus, and not only by inspection of the programme, but by personal consultation with their respective teachers.
In more remote relation, the instruction connects itself with the earlier lectures on artillery, tactics, history of the art of war, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the exercises in plan-drawing and surveying. The special programmes of instruction of these branches of study are also to be taken notice of by the teacher, that nothing may be twice taught, and that where the use of doctrines from those studies is necessary, he may merely refer to them historically.
This instruction comprises, after an introduction, the following principal divisions.
1. The application of the rules for sieges already given to particular cases, with a general regard to the ground, more especially of irregular fortresses, shown by various remarkable sieges.
2. A theory of construction as auxiliary science in the execution of engineering works for field or permanent fortification, and in the execution of military constructions: building materials, modes of building, and the application of both for given purposes.
376To this part belong—
a. A knowledge of the different building materials from the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms; their production and preparation for various building purposes, and the data, so important in practice, regarding their durability and mode of employment.
b. The theory of the use and combination of these building materials for constructive purposes, and of the building of separate portions of an edifice.
c. The foundations of buildings and the means of improving the foundation bottoms.
d. Construction of ordinary buildings, as inclosures, inclined or unloaded revetments, loopholed walls, barracks and hospitals, dwelling and guard-houses, military prisons, stables, magazines, such as arsenals, wagon sheds, provision stores, bakeries, powder magazines, laboratories, communications, mines, weirs and stop-sluices, ice-breakers, &c.
e. Principles of machinery, with explanations of the forces necessary to move machines, with notice of the most common for raising and moving weights, for pumping, draining, dredging, &c.
3. The art, to apply the knowledge gained by the foregoing lectures by means of projects for certain special purposes, and under given circumstances of ground, such as his service may require of an Engineer Officer. The application of field fortification to given portions of ground is alone excepted, since the teacher of applied Fortification-drawing has this especially assigned to him, who still is only to give out his projects in unison with the teacher of Exclusive Engineering.
There belongs to this part—
a. The method of preparing plans and estimates of buildings, in the manner treated of under 2, at (c) and (d,) illustrated by frequent practice in making out such plans.
b. Practice in plans for special objects and given ground, which latter is to be chosen in the neighborhood of the fortress of Spandau.
c. Instructions generally conceived on the duties in a fortress of an Officer of Engineers, and on the practice of building in Prussian fortresses.
d. As appendix, notices on the formation and preservation of hedges, and plantations of shrubs and trees.
The time fixed for this instruction amounts in thirty-five weeks, at ten hours each, to 350 hours, which, according to the importance of the different sections, may, as a general rule, be appropriated as follows:—
Introduction and details of the first principal section, about | 20 | hours. |
Theory of building, namely; the lectures on materials and their use, | 140 | “ |
Lectures on constructions, | 80 | “ |
Lectures on machinery, | 30 | “ |
Details of the third principal section, | 80 | “ |
Total, | 350 | “ |
The more particular distribution of this general division of time is matter of the special lesson plan, and it only remains to be observed, that with the approval of the Director, some afternoons are to be taken for viewing the most remarkable buildings in Berlin and neighborhood; and in conjunction with the 377 teacher of applied Fortification-drawing, three days are to be set apart for a recognizance of the works of the fortress of Spandau, relative to the projects of fortifications mentioned under 3 at (b.)
The two first sections of this instruction, namely, the continuation of the instruction on sieges, and the theory of construction, keep their place in the regular lectures of the school, though naturally they have an immediate applicability to practical service, and the lectures therefore ought to be made his own by the pupil by frequent exercises and detailed plans.
The projects for a given ground, on the contrary, must be worked out by the pupils in conformity with the instruction given, as much as possible independently, and as on service a young officer would do under the guidance of his superior. The drawings need not be entirely shaded, but may be partially executed by lines only, but they must be distinct and clean. Here, as in Fortification-drawing, the prescriptions of the Engineer regulation of the 25th of April, 1820, are to be observed, a copy of which is therefore always present in the drawing-room, that they may be seen by each student. Attention is to be given also to the correctness of the scale, to correct coloring, entry on the drawing of the date when done, and of the name as well as the rank of the student, as directed by the above regulation.
In the exercises all propositions for improvements which vary from the mode of practice now in use are excluded.
The teaching auxiliaries are the books and models of the school.
The instruction in hydraulics is to comprehend:—
1. Those general principles of hydraulic architecture which in the lectures on Exclusive Engineering in the third cœtus of the school could not be specially explained without extending them too far, and therefore were there taken for granted.
2. Such hydraulic works, as do not immediately come within the scope of military buildings, and therefore could not be included in a lecture on Exclusive Engineering, but which on account of their connection with the profession of an Engineer Officer in general, independently of military construction proper, ought to be known by him in their most important principles.
Since in the instruction in engineering in the third cœtus, opportunities offer for projects of fortification, with application of the theoretical principles given above (at 1,) the exercise problems for the instruction in hydraulic architecture need only extend to those hydraulic works (at 2,) not referring to fortification.
The instruction is in immediate connection with the lectures on mathematics, physics, and exclusive engineering, the last of which will be lectured on at the same time as hydraulics; the lectures on physics and that portion of mathematics which is here necessary, with the exception of hydraulics, have been already treated in the first cœtus. In arranging the plan of the lectures, and in carrying it out, the plans for those sciences must be considered, and conferences held with the teachers it may concern, to prevent the frequent repetition of the same subject.
The entire number of hours is seventy, two of which are given weekly, 378 which, that they may fall in at the same time with the lectures on exclusive engineering, are thus distributed:—
Hours. | |
---|---|
1. Introduction and laws of the motion of water in open channels and pipes, wells, suction and forcing pumps, about | 5 |
2. Motion of water in streams, hydrometrical measurements, | 3 |
3. Regulation of streams by dams, cuttings, &c., explanation of ice-floats, and of the means to prevent their destructive power, | 5 |
4. Execution and construction of these works and of securing the banks by dikes, packing, and weirs, | 14 |
5. Historical description of the works for internal navigation, canals, sluices, towing-paths, &c., | 4 |
6. Draining and irrigation works, inundations, | 4 |
7. Harbors, moles, sands, lighthouses, roadsteads, &c., | 6 |
8. The principles of foundations under water, with accompanying notice of the usual pile and scoop machines, | 12 |
9. The general principles of bridge building; historical relation of the most remarkable works executed of this kind, | 17 |
Total, | 70 |
To make the lecture plainer, and to exercise the student in comprehending existing hydraulic buildings, eight afternoons, at the choice of the teacher, after a previous consultation with the director, are to be appropriated to the inspection and drawing of hydraulic constructions, at Berlin, namely, the sluices and mills.
Although this instruction embraces a large field in a very short period, it must not be extended over too many objects, but rather to be confined to what is indispensable to the practical use of the engineer; the matter of these, however, to be treated fundamentally and thoroughly, and all superficiality be avoided.
The lectures are to be given from private notes, without any prescribed hand-book.
In the First Cœtus.
The Students of the first cœtus are to receive a thorough instruction in elementary tactics, and the employment of the different arms, both separately and united. The object is not merely that they may pass the Officer’s examination, but that they may gain true general ideas on these subjects, which ought not to be strange to a well-informed officer of any arm. A frequent illustration of the lectures delivered, by examples and problems for actual ground, is particularly recommended.
Lectures on tactics are closely connected with those on artillery, fortification, rules of the service; and in certain respects the lectures on plan-drawing and veterinary art, as well as practical exercises in surveying.
More especially—
a. In artillery: Construction of cannon, of small-arms and side-arms, choice and training of horses for artillery service; organization of the artillery; regulation for the artillery on march and in camp; use of artillery in the field, as regards the specialties of its position, movement, and mode of fighting. The use of artillery in general, in attack and defense, with the use of the reserve 379 artillery in more important battles, in village skirmishes, passage of rivers and defiles, and field fortifications, belongs to the lectures on artillery, but only in the second cœtus; these subjects are therefore to be treated historically with tactics, as far as knowledge of them is required for the Officer’s examination. As a general principle, however, all the relations of detail in the constitution or the specialties of artillery are to be treated in the lectures on that science; in the tactics, on the contrary, only the more general relations which concern all the arms of the service, and where the artillery acts in union with infantry and cavalry.
b. In Fortification; the designing and construction of field-works and all means of obstruction. The manner in which ground in general, and the given position in particular, is to be used for the throwing up field-works. Attack and defense of field-works. Complete exposition of the art of sieges.
c. Veterinary art. Natural history, physiology, and general nourishment of the horse.
d. Plan-drawing and surveying. Everything that is to be said on the general physical laws of the form of the earth’s surface, and specially on a knowledge of topography and its representation.
e. Rules of the service. A knowledge of military style. Discipline in all its various branches. The internal service on detachments, convoys, and separate commands, and some historical remarks on the provisioning of an army.
The lectures embrace the following principal sections:—
1. Introduction. General ideas of war. War materials. Aim of war. Conduct of war. Tactics and strategy. Army organization.
2. Organization of the Prussian army. Raising and equipping the troops. Formation and strength. Replacing of men and materials. Supplies.
3. Special ideas of tactics. Forming, changing position, and combat. Close and open fighting; distant and near fighting. Offensive and defensive. The enemy. The ground. Characteristics of the different sorts of troops. A short sketch of the development of tactics up to their present state.
4. The proscribed tactics of the infantry, cavalry, and artillery according to the Prussian regulations.
5. Ideas on the combination of the three Arms and order of battle.
6. Influence of ground on the use of troops. Classification of ground and cognizance of the individual objects on it.
7. Occupation, attack, and defense of objects on the ground, as heights, valleys, woods, river lines, farm-buildings, inhabited places, defiles, bridges, dykes.
8. Security of troops on a march. Service of advanced posts. Reconnaissances. Special duties for detachments, as escorting convoys in our own or enemy’s country; foraging, surprises, ambuscades, covering of works in the field. In conclusion, some remarks on partizan warfare.
The total number of hours comprises, according to the regulation, in thirty-five weeks at four hours each, 140 hours, of which are to be employed:—
For the | first and second | principal sections about | 15 hours. |
“ | third | “ “ | 20 “ |
“ | fourth | “ “ | 40 “ |
“ | fifth and sixth | “ “ | 15 “ |
“ | seventh | “ “ | 25 “ |
“ | eighth | “ “ | 25 “ |
Total, | 140 “ |
The lectures on tactics furnish the student with the positive knowledge that is necessary as a general basis; but further care is particularly taken that by the application of the problems put before the students their knowledge is not made up of mere dead knowledge, but that throughout their understandings are exercised. It is, therefore, a special duty of the teacher to frame his lectures accordingly, and as well by a development of the basis upon which the organization, the elementary tactics, and the art of war is founded, as also by very frequent exercises given to the pupils on the lectures to press towards this end.
For the solution of the tactical problems, a number of plans of ground is necessary. They are obtained on the requisition of the teacher through the Director.
It is further necessary to illustrate the use of the different troops upon the ground itself, as well for attack as defense, and to have the examples and problems given by the teachers sketched by the scholars. For such exercises four days of two or three hours each will suffice.
Of the existing hand-books, none appears perfectly qualified to serve as a basis for instruction. The filling in, therefore, of a sketch of the lectures, and of a special plan of instruction, is indispensable to give the teacher a fixed basis, and the scholars an assistance in their repetitions.
The mathematical lecture, besides its general tendency to sharpen the intellect, is to make the scholars acquainted with all those theories and laws which are indispensable to the Artillery and Engineer officer to enable him to solve with certainty and ease those problems which so often meet him in the service.
Since these problems in part require the application of rules of the higher branches of mathematics, lectures on these ought not to be wanting, and consequently the mathematical instruction for at least a portion of the pupils must embrace (with few exceptions) the entire field of this science.
In order, however, that this demand be accommodated to the time at disposal and the capabilities of the students, the following rules are to be observed:—
1. The students of the first cœtus having already passed their examination for Portépée ensign, and the Predicate ziemlich gut, in their mathematical examination, being requisite for entry into the School, it is to be presumed that they enter with a good or at least sufficient preparatory knowledge. Still, as it is not to be expected that the necessary requirement in arithmetic and algebra will be possessed throughout, the first part of the instruction must be considered as the most important, and be given thoroughly and fundamentally.
2. Such portions of mathematics as are less necessary for Artillerists and Engineers (for instance, astronomy and the higher geodesy,) are to be entirely omitted from the lectures.
3. As even in such portions as fall within the scope of the lectures, there is much that can not be exhausted, therefore all that belongs solely to speculative views, or possibly only serves to the rounding or perfecting a system, must be passed over. The instruction in mathematics stands in near and frequent connection with the lectures on artillery, architecture, mechanics, physics, theory of surveying, and with drawing lessons, as well as with practical mensuration.
381These belong specially—
a. To Artillery: architecture, mechanics; the application of all those formulas which the mathematical lectures have to deduce and to prove.
b. To Physics: the theories of dioptrics, and catoptrics, which the students require to a perfect understanding of the construction of telescopes and reflecting instruments; what is necessary from aerometry and aerostatics.
c. To Drawing lessons: practical working out of the theory of perspection, and the construction of shadows.
d. To the theory of Surveying: a knowledge of all the instruments requisite for mensuration and leveling, and the principal theorems, with their application to cases occurring in mensuration.
The lectures on mathematics form of themselves a continuous, closely connected whole; consequently, the same teacher who gave instruction in the first cœtus is to retain his pupils in the second, so that each of the two teachers commence with the first cœtus in alternate years.
For the third cœtus there will be a selection made of those students who have made themselves noticed in the second cœtus by distinguished ability, special application, and peculiar talent for the study of mathematics, and have thus raised hopes that they may be conducted with success into the higher branches of the science.
They form a separate division, whose number should always be small if the selection be guided strictly by the contemplated purpose. All the other students of the third cœtus form a second division, in which the entire field of what they have already been taught in mathematics is again gone over, with a view to its application; and at the end of this course some other subjects necessary to the Artillerist and Engineer are to be treated, without, however, mere scientific speculations.
For each of these divisions a separate teacher is appointed.
A. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST CŒTUS EMBRACE,—
I. Arithmetic and Algebra.
1. Algebra, with sums, differences, products, quotients, whole numbers, roots, powers with real exponents and logarithms. The qualities of fixed numbers, fractions, decimal and continued fractions. Extraction of square and cubic roots in figures and letters, practical use of logarithms.
2. Algebra, equations of the first and second degree, with one or more unknown quantities, proportions, and the higher numerical equations.
3. Arithmetical and geometrical progression, calculation of interest, theory of combination, binomial theory for real exponents, series for powers and logarithms and analytic trigonometry.
4. Cubic and biquadratic equations, pure equation of the nth degree, reciprocal equations. (4½ months.)
II. Plane Geometry.
Similarity of figures formed by straight lines, their contents. Theory of the circle; measurement of the circle and of its parts. Geometrical analysis and application of algebra to geometry. (2½ months.)
382III. Plane Trigonometry.
Trigonometrical functions and their logarithms. Calculation of triangles and polygons, certain parts being given. Application to the circle. (2 months.)
B. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS COMPRISE,—
I. Geometry.
1. Geometry of solids. Place of lines and superfices in space. Solid angles, solids, determination of their superfices and contents. Applications, with consideration of the weights of material bodies.
2. Solid trigonometry, with its application to the superfices of the earth.
3. The theories of projection and co-ordinates.
4. Conic sections. (4½ months.)
II. Statics.— Geostatics and Hydrostatics.
With application to practical cases, namely, determination of center of gravity for ordnance and their parts, pressure upon supports, rafters, against walls, dikes and arches; stability, carrying power, strength as well as regulation and calculation of power of machines which are moved by animals. (4½ months.)
C. THE LECTURES IN THE FIRST SECTION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,
1. Differential and integral calculation. (3 months.)
2. Higher geometry. (2½ months.)
3. Dynamics (mechanical,) and hydraulics, with application of the determination of the strength, direction, and distribution of the recoil upon the separate proportions of a piece of ordnance, of the science of projectiles, of the theory of carriages, of the rise of rockets. (3½ months.)
D. THE LECTURES IN THE SECOND DIVISION OF THE THIRD CŒTUS COMPRISE,
1. Repetition of the most important results of the instruction in the first cœtus in a series of exercises.
2. Repetition of the theory of statics and solution of numerous problems from real life. (3 months.)
3. Dynamics and hydraulics without higher analysis, with applications. (3 months.)
E. GENERAL APPROPRIATION OF TIME.
The number of lessons (hours) amounts, according to the prescribed plan for the first and second cœtus, to six hours, for each division of the third cœtus four hours, weekly; if the course be taken, after deducting the holidays and other interruptions, at thirty-five weeks, then there will be for the first and second cœtus, 210, and for each division of the third, 140 hours.
The number of hours to be devoted to each portion must, in the first instance, be determined by the teacher in his special lecture plan, as it in part depends upon his previous experience; at all events, all the above-named themes for the first cœtus must be treated in the stated time. Only in special cases, in the second and third cœtus, can the omission or transposition of one or the other, on reference to the higher authorities, be permitted.
It has been already remarked that the course of mathematics should impart to the students not only that amount of positive knowledge which he requires 383 for his immediate sphere of action and needs as incitement and guide to further study, but also should fill the important purpose of forming the mind of the students generally. This purpose will be the more certainly gained the more the teacher is enabled to render the scholar self-trusting, and in each separate study to lead to the development of a few select principles simple and easily understood, but comprising in natural and logical connection the whole theory, so that the scholar fancies they are his own discovery, and therefore prizes them as his own. The teacher must, therefore, gradually propose a series of connected inquiries, and those naturally first on which the usual systems are based, as questions to which the students have to submit answers deduced from the above-named principles, with constant application of simple common sense. By these means the students are not only continually gaining single results, made ready to their hand by use, but what is principally desired, they acquire thereby great mental activity.
As regards instruction in the separate cœtus, the following rules are to be observed:—
At the commencement in the first cœtus, the teacher should endeavor, by frequent questions to form a full and correct judgment of the previous knowledge of each student, that he may determine how he should proceed with his lecture, slower or quicker, and to what subjects generally for the entire class special notice and exercise should be devoted.
The most complete exercise of the elementary rules, forming, as it does, the indispensable basis for all future progress is in this cœtus the principal aim of the teacher.
In the second cœtus, in the application of the theory of co-ordinates to the commonest curves, no investigation of the specialties of the theory of curves is necessary, because this is reserved for later lectures, and it would here abridge the time required for subjects of nearer interest. The development of these theories must, therefore, be confined to the simplest elementary use. The study, too, of the analysis of finite numbers is to be continued only so far as the student requires for immediate application, without any intention of going deeper into the science. On the other hand, a suitably increased time is to be given to statics and hydrostatics, because the student ought to be acquainted with them in the most complete manner.
As the first division of the third cœtus consists of but few and only the best scholars, it may be required of them to work out independently at home separate questions given by the teacher, and submit them to him for examination. The progress of the student is more surely gained and advanced, the oftener he has opportunity of personally discovering mathematical truths, or by applying them to examples to come to a clearer comprehension and use of them.
In the second division the teacher will not always be able to avoid giving a repetition of the reasons of propositions. This is necessary when he perceives from the work or expressions of the students, that the majority have not perfectly comprehended the proposition. Still the teacher will here content himself with bringing forward the most important points in the chain of deduction. The explanatory problems are solved by the teacher himself, who then sets similar ones for working out by the students at home.
For practical static problems, the teacher can use with great benefit objects often occurring in common life, and yet regarded so little; the numerous applications 384 of the lever, of the inclined plane, &c., by artillerists and engineers, for their works, carriages, draught, &c., furnish sufficient material for such problems; as for instance, determination of the depth of a boat of given length and breadth when after putting into it a piece of ordnance a given height out of water is required; determination of the power requisite to overcome the resistance of a log lying in the track of a vessel; determination of the pressure of a laden beam on two or more supports with reference to the flexibility of the beam; determination of the center of gravity in an excentric hollow shot, both theoretically with given radius and known centers, as well as more practically when the centers and the radius of its interior are unknown, as by dipping the hollow shot into quicksilver; determination of the counterpoise of a drawbridge and examination of the best position for the axle ; investigation of the strength of metal and wood pipes which are to serve as water-pipes at given heights of pressure, &c.
At the same time the teacher ought not to leave unnoticed the advantages which theory can offer to practice when rightly applied, by which is in no way meant that the practical man should enter every time into a prolix and anxious calculation, but from the improvement his mind and capacities have received, he may apply readily what he has learnt to the purposes of common life.
Dynamics and hydraulics will be rather treated in a physical and historical point of view; here, too, the application of known professional results is the principal object.
As the limited time will not allow separate mathematical repetitions, the teacher should therefore be the more careful to make his lectures as much as possible applicatory. To insure progress the students must, besides the usual writing out the lecture, have frequent themes given to them for work at home, and of which their own execution should be secured by proper means.
It is perfectly necessary that a hand-book should form the basis of the instruction, from which the teacher should lecture, and the students make repetitions.
The hand-books are to be proposed by the teacher to the Board of Studies, and must not be changed without permission.
These books, as well as the logarithm tables, every student must have a copy of, as he can not do without them in the school, and may frequently require them in future life.
Models of solids, to illustrate the projection theory, are in the collection of the models of the school.
The practical artillery exercises are intended, in the first place, to furnish the students with a sight of that portion of the material of the artillery which they have had no previous opportunity of knowing, and of which the knowledge is indispensable for a complete understanding of the theoretical lecture. The exercises should follow the lecture as immediately as possible, and occur therefore during the continuance of the theoretical course.
The students are besides to become acquainted with the methods of execution of the most important artillery duties, in an extent compatible with their position, and the time at their disposition. For this portion of the exercises, the months of July, August and September are to be preferred.
385In the major part of these exercises, the engineer students take part so as to gain a knowledge of such parts of the artillery service as seem to be of the greatest importance to them.
The artillery exercises separate into numerous subdivisions, of which the following may be particularly remarked:—
I. EXERCISES OF THE FIRST COETUS.
A. Visits.
The visits happen, as already noted, at the period of the theoretical instruction. The students are to be divided into as many sections as is necessary, that each may gain the desired information. There belong to this part—
a. Visiting the foundry and the boring machine. All the students of the first coetus are to be taken by the artillery teacher of this coetus, on two afternoons, to the foundry, and to the new boring machine.
They will see the general construction of the foundry and the boring machine, and, in case such work is going on, the molding, boring, and turning, and receive the explanations necessary.
b. Examination of ordnance, gun-carriages, and ammunition wagons.
Those in the arsenal, as well as the exercising pieces of the regiment of artillery of the guard, are to be used for this purpose, to exhibit the construction of ordnance both in the Prussian and foreign artilleries, and also those of an earlier date, from the specimens kept there. In the same way as has been remarked for the ordnance, the gun-carriages and equipages of the guard artillery regiment in store will offer opportunity for a more exact scrutiny of these carriages, limbers, and wagons. For these visits four afternoons are to be taken.
c. Visit to the workshops of the artillery:—
The students will, in two afternoons, gain there a knowledge of the following objects:
1. The mode of work in general.
2. Processes in the manufacture of the most important objects of artillery material, as axles, wheels, carriages, mountings, sponges, harness, ropes, &c.
3. The raw material (wood, iron, leather.)
4. Objects furnished to field, siege, and fortress artillery.
d. Visit to the small-arms factory and powder-mills in Spandau:—
The scholars of the first coetus will be conducted into both manufactories, to obtain a general insight into the various works.
In order that the work of the manufactories may receive no interruption, the teacher of the first coetus is to communicate beforehand with their respective superintendents, and take the students in suitable small parties, and before entering the powder manufactory to insist, most carefully, on all the proper precautions being observed.
These visits are to take place during the theoretical course on the same day as is fixed for the first coetus to visit the fortress of Spandau to study its fortifications; and, therefore, an agreement should be made between the teacher of artillery and the teacher of general engineering.
e. Visit to the armory at the arsenal:—
The students are to be conducted on an afternoon to the armory of the arsenal, where the superintendent will explain to them the peculiarities of match 386 and wheel locks, with the most remarkable projects for loading at the breech, and with the form of small arms amongst other nations.
B. Exercises.
a. Examination of small arms:—
The students are to be taken by their teacher to the musket manufactory, where they will be shown the mode of proof of small arms in general, and with reference to the theoretical lecture then in progress.
Each student then receives a faulty musket, with direction to examine and note its defects. The teacher revises and corrects these notes.
b. The management of machines:
In the presence of the students the management of various machines, &c., as well as the repair of damaged carriages, will be undertaken. According to the means at disposal, such exercises will be selected as are most instructive, in exhibiting arrangement, strength, and care in their application.
The students will be permitted to lend a hand only in such cases as it is foreseen that their strength will be sufficient. For all other purposes where strength is necessary, workmen must be employed.
II. EXERCISES IN THE SECOND CŒTUS.
When the teacher judges proper, some of the previous visits are repeated on the afternoons disposable during the theoretical course.
A. Marking out and Tracing Batteries.
The students undertake these exercises under inspection of their teacher of artillery on two days in the last three months of the course.
The teacher instructs them then how to ascertain the prolongation of the enemy’s lines, and the mode of determining the line of fire of the first embrasure of the different batteries, as well as the other points to be marked out, both with the use of the usual instruments, and with simple measurement by pacing, and laying down right angles by the eye.
A complete construction of a battery is not possible on account of the shortness of time, paucity of means, and strength of the students. The exercise, therefore, is confined to an explanation of the formation of the material and tool depots; to marking out and tracing horizontal and sunk batteries on even, irregular, and sloping ground, and to the construction of the powder magazine.
B. Practical Exemplification of the Rules for Placing Ordnance according to the Ground.
These exercises are to be carried out on two afternoons by all the students, under the inspection of their artillery teacher.
They have only reference to the ground, and leave out of consideration all tactical considerations. This object may be fully attained even without guns, and the necessary instruction may be given without them, as it would not be easy to form all the batteries in the desired number.
The teacher chooses the ground, explains it by means of a plan to the students, and goes with them to the place. He divides them into various sections, and lets each select positions for from two to eight pieces, both for attack and defence with different kinds of ordnance, giving only generally the direction and distance at which the enemy is operating.
387Each position is inspected by the teacher, and the views and reasons for it received and discussed as regards effect, mode of firing, and covering and free movement, and where it is necessary, improved; and at the same time the requisite precautions taken for the limbers and wagons.
C. Drawings of Ordnance Carriages and Wagons.
These exercises are to be undertaken by the artillerists of the second cœtus, under inspection of the teacher of artillery-drawing, on twelve afternoons in June.
The drawing of a piece of ordnance is to be clearly distinguished from the examination of it. For the first, taking the necessary measures is alone necessary, but not their comparison with given models.
The teacher will order these exercises, so that the students learn principally—
1. What scale they ought to take for a given object, so as to execute a drawing with the precision necessary for being afterwards worked from.
2. With what instruments and method of procedure they may most easily obtain their end.
3. How notices of improvements are to be taken and arranged.
4. How the rough draft is to be jotted down.
It must be here particularly remarked that our guns, carriages, &c., have no mathematically exact forms, and that therefore the number of measures to be taken must be often multiplied to have a true figure of the body.
A fair drawing from these measures in the above period is so much the less possible, as the number of objects is as much as possible multiplied. It is fully sufficient, however, for the purpose of this exercise, that the students learn to take complete and useful rough drafts.
On their entrance into the third cœtus, the complete drawings from these rough drafts take place.
In his selection of objects to be drawn, the teacher must, in having regard to variety, take care that the drawings by too great difficulty do not exceed the time and power of the students, nor by too great simplicity cease to be instructive.
Ordnance carriages, limbers, wagons, and the machines required in artillery, are the most suitable for choice, and are easiest obtainable in the arsenal.
The students must be divided into sub-sections, of at most three or four persons, and to each a separate task given.
The teacher is to be present at the drawings to see to their proper execution, and has delivered to him the notices and rough sketches to amend any errors that may be in them.
The relative section of the second edition of Burg’s “Drawing of Artillery Material” is to be taken as the basis for these exercises. In addition to them, the students receive guidance and suitable instruction in drawing artillery objects off-hand by the eye, without the use of instruments. The first two days are to be chosen for this, and the students by this use of off-hand drawing receive at the same time a useful preparation for the drawings subsequently required to be taken by the aid of instruments.
D. Exercises necessary in regard to Sieges—
Are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery and special engineering jointly, and are given more in detail under exercises in fortification.
388III. EXERCISES IN COMMON OF THE FIRST AND SECOND CŒTUS.
A. Proof of Powder.
This exercise is to be conducted by all the students of the first and second cœtus at the time of the gun-practice, and comprises—
1. Firing different sorts of powder from the proof mortar.
2. Firing different sorts of powder purposely brought into an abnormal state.
3. Instruction in weighing and measuring the powder.
B. Artillery Practice.
All the students of the second and third cœtus take part in the practice under the inspection of the two teachers of artillery, for which fourteen days in August and September are fixed. If possible, it is to be undertaken in the morning, and only when the practice-ground is otherwise occupied is it to be deferred till the afternoons.
The practice comprises—
1. The necessary preparation for firing; namely, laying down the platform, marking the range, fixing the targets, preparing the lists to note the shots.
2. Firing from different kinds of ordnance and with different projectiles.
3. Instruction of the students in the service of the guns; selection of the charge and direction under given circumstances, and their correction; effects of distance; noting and jotting down the shots and the time of flight; calculation of the length of fuse, of ranges and averages from the different data, and remarks on the effects sought.
4. Burning a portion of prepared laboratory materials for observation of its action and effect.
The following are to be objects of practice:—
a. Rounds of six, twelve, and twenty-four lbs. shot and shell out of the short 24-pounders, to note—
aa. The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations, and as regards ricochet fire.
bb. Probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.
cc. As regards dismounting.
dd. As regards firing against heads of saps.
b. Seven, ten and twenty-five lb. shells, carcases, and light balls, to note—
aa. The grazes, distances, and deviations at different elevations and charges, also as regards ricochet firing.
bb. The probability of hitting upright targets at various distances.
c. Shells, carcases, and light balls from mortars, to note—
aa. The probability of hitting upright targets at different distances.
bb. The calculation of the charge or elevation when one of these elements and the distance are given, or vice versâ.
cc. Calculation of lengths of fuse for given distances.
d. Throwing hand grenades, stones, 1-pound case shot, and 3-pound balls at various distances for comparison of the effects.
e. Firing from the hand and stock-mortars at differing distances.
f. Case shot from 6 or 12-pounders, also from short or long 24-pounders and 7 and 50-pound howitzers at different distances against planks, and both with case shot, and grape shot, for observing the effect:
389aa. Of different charges.
bb. Of different weights of the entire case.
cc. Of the weight and size of balls used.
dd. There is also to be observed the scattering, the number of hits and wide balls, and determination of the best line.
g. Shrapnel shells from field-pieces against planking.
5. The number of the before-named rounds is not to be too great, partly not to increase expense, partly in regard to time, since the practice is intended for instruction, and therefore not to be hurried. Still for shot, shell, and grape shot, ten rounds is the minimum, if a result is to be drawn; for the small mortar five rounds are sufficient.
Notwithstanding this limit, it will not be possible to take the practice all in one year. It seems, therefore, expedient to divide the whole into two portions, so that the most important practice happens indeed in each year, generally however, in one year the practice is to take place with field-pieces, in the following year with siege-pieces, so that the student who is present once in the first year and once in the second can complete the necessary course.
The teachers have, therefore, to determine, in the proposed plans for these exercises, the sort and number of rounds they judge necessary for the following year.
C. Practice in the Laboratory.
As the students of the artillery, by the present regulations of their education in the regiments, have not sufficient opportunity to learn the service of the laboratory perfectly, particular attention must be paid to this work in the school.
The students of the engineer corps also take part in it, in the second cœtus, not to become perfect proficients in the different operations, but so as to gain a general knowledge of ammunition, matches, and compositions, and the duties of the laboratory.
All the students of the first, and the artillery students of the second cœtus are therefore to be occupied by their teachers for twelve afternoons in the laboratory.
For the superintendence, so necessary in these works, and for variety of practice, the fireworkers employed as assistant teachers in the school, and others from the proof department of the artillery, and also five or six artillery officers of the third cœtus, are to be present at this practice, so that each of these students is present twice or thrice on the average.
The work embraces, first, the preparation of ammunition for the artillery practice, &c.
But as this would not suffice for the complete instruction of such a large number of students, it must receive an extension calculated for this purpose, and embrace not only the separate preparations, but also a large quantity of ammunition, which, as not required for the school, is therefore sent to the depót.
The following work is to be preferred:—
Pounding of saltpetre, grinding meal powder, pounding sulphur and charcoal, boiling paste, making mastic, composition, quick-match, fuses, tubes, port-fires, carcass composition, touchpaper, case and grape shot, loading shells for bursting, discharging empty shells in which a fuse only has been driven; carcasses, fire-balls, and light balls; infantry, cavalry, buck-shot, and percussion 390 cartridges; ball, canister, howitzer, and paper cartridges. Fanal, signal rockets, pitch compounds, powder bags, and stink-pots. The teacher is to make a careful distribution of the students, (allowing for such as have missed any days by illness,) to be satisfied that each artillerist has made every article in the laboratory, if possible, or at least has carefully witnessed its preparation.
IV. EXERCISES IN THE THIRD CŒTUS.
All the exercises of this cœtus take place during the period of the theoretical course.
A. Visit to the Workshops.
The student will have to learn the mode of proceeding, the construction, and the use of the machines employed. Examination and storing of the most important raw materials.
B. Visit to the Iron Foundry.
All the students of the third cœtus are to be divided into two sections, and each section to be conducted on an afternoon under the care of the teacher of artillery concerned to the Royal Iron Foundry.
They will see there the molding, casting, and cleaning of case shot, cannon balls, and shells.
They will also have explained to them the construction of reverberatory and cupola furnaces, of steam engines, and of turning lathes, and planing benches.
C. Visit to the Foundry and Boring Machine.
The students of the third cœtus are to be present at the actual manufacture of cannon, their molding, casting, and boring. But as the circumscribed room and other considerations will not allow all the students to be present at one time, different divisions are to be formed, to visit the foundry and boring house on different days. The teacher concerned, will, therefore, make the necessary inquiries as to the time when the above works are going on, and arrange the visits by communication with the director.
The casting and preparation of iron ordnance require particular attention. On this, too, the teacher has to obtain information, and proceed as above.
D. Examination of Iron Ammunition.
The artillery officers of the third cœtus take these exercises in hand on two afternoons, under care of the artillery teacher in the same cœtus.
The purport of it is not so much a thorough instruction in this manufacture, as a completion of the theoretical lectures on the mode of conducting the processes by means of personal inspection and handling of the instruments. The teacher will pay particular attention to the errors that may occur in the measurements, &c.
E. Examination of Cannon.
This exercise is to be undertaken by the artillery officers of the third cœtus, under the inspection of their artillery teacher, in six afternoons. The object of it is exactly the same as of the foregoing.
The exercise must commence with directions for proving the instruments, when the teacher will show the mode of their manipulation.
As the use of such instruments only can be reckoned on as the school, the depôt, and the artillery proof department possess, only three sections of the 391 students can work each day simultaneously; the section consisting, at the utmost, of six persons, if individual handling of them is presumed necessary.
The teacher must, therefore, divide the students into sub-sections, and make such arrangement that each student, if possible, personally work every part of the exercise, or at least have a perfect sight of it.
That portion of the students which can not be immediately occupied on each exercise day, put their tables of dimensions in the order and forms required by the regulations.
F. Examination of the Gun-Carriages and Wagons.
The exercise is to be conducted by the artillery officers of the third cœtus, exactly as the foregoing, in five afternoons.
G. Practical Exposition of the Rules for the placing of Guns according to given Tactical Relations.
These exercises are to be performed by the artillery students of the third cœtus, under the direction of their teacher of artillery, on four afternoons.
The teacher makes known the ground by means of a plan; he then directs reconnaissances to be made, and receives the reports.
He selects a tactical problem, the nature of which offers opportunity to remark both on the placing of guns of different calibres, and also the reserve artillery at the decisive moment of a battle, as well as the more minute details of placing single divisions and guns, and the limbers, riding horses, and wagons.
Before he solves himself the problem completely, he gathers the opinions of the students in respect to single portions, and if necessary sets them right.
The principles to be followed refer so specially to the ground, that the object of illustrating the instructions can be attained without guns. The teacher may therefore content himself with marking by flags the situation of single guns and batteries, by which the advantage is obtained of an easier use of the ground.
H. Exercises at Spandau in reference to a Siege.
These exercises are to be conducted by the teacher of artillery, in unison with analogous regulations of the teacher of engineering, and are more particularly mentioned in the practical exercises of fortification.
The limits of time and means render it impossible to gain for the above-named exercises that extent by which the full acquirement of the necessary mechanical readiness could be insured. It is sufficient if the student has made a perfect personal examination and performed as much manipulation as circumstances permit.
The separate practical exercises can only be made after the termination of the theoretical treatment of the subject. This rule is necessary, partly because this practice is only a continuance and completion of the lecture, partly because the shortness of time restricts the exercises considerably, and therefore the days devoted to them can not be applied to theoretical explanations, which will be more profitably given in the lectures.
Where the nature of the exercises permits, the officers and elder portépée ensigns will take the superintendence, that having formerly learnt the execution, they may now make themselves acquainted with the duties of ordering and inspection.
392The number of students engaged at one time in an exercise ought not to be so large that a portion of it remain unoccupied or not under the complete inspection of the teacher. The disturbances that occur too easily in such cases, being most injurious, must be most carefully avoided. The teacher will make the division above stated, and take all necessary measures for obtaining the requisite control.
If at any of the exercises, danger can arise to the students, the teacher is previously to instruct them specially in what is to be observed for the safety of the workmen; after that, the superintendence of the students must be conducted with increased care, and any departure from the given orders visited with redoubled severity.
The determination of the days for these exercises rests with the director, after consulting the teachers. Should unexpected hindrances prevent the carrying out an exercise, the teacher may determine concerning it, but must consult with the Direction as to the fetching it up on another disposable day.
The necessary workmen will be demanded by the Direction from the respective services, of which the teacher will give to the Direction due previous notice.
The guns necessary for practice are to be lent by the Artillery Regiment of the Guard and the Artillery Depot; all the other instruments, equipments, &c., are borrowed from the Depot. All materials are received by order of the war department or by purchase. It is therefore the business of the senior of the two Artillery teachers, in his yearly demand for the practice, to state the full requirement of tools and materials, that the Direction may take timely measures for their supply.
Practical exercises in fortification stand in immediate relation to the lectures on fortification, sieges, and field engineering. They complete, as far as possible under given circumstances, the theoretical lectures by personal view; they also offer the students opportunity for solving fitly chosen problems, to apply what has been learnt, and to prepare by reflection for practical service.
The exercises are to be conducted in each cœtus by the teachers who lecture on Engineering. The presence of the Artillery teacher is elsewhere separately noted.
A. THE EXERCISES COMPRISE—
a. For the First Cœtus.
1. In unison with the teacher of Artillery and of General Engineering, the examination of the fortress of Spandau, to make clear to the students the combination of the details of a complete fortress from an actual example.
2. Examination of the models of fortresses and their details in the Arsenal, to make clear the principles of a siege.
3. Visiting the exercising-ground of the Engineer division of the guard in all its details.
4. Marking out, tracing, profiling, calculation of the cubic measurements, of the time for building, of the number of workmen, and of the garrison for given fortifications on ground near Berlin.
5. Being present at the exercises of the Engineer division of the guard in sapping, mining, building redoubts, laying bridges, and their instructions.
393b. For the Second Cœtus.
1. Examining the models in the model-house, partly to illustrate the systems taught, partly to show the influence of ground on the situation, form, and contrivance of the works; and again to explain by the aid of the necessary notices of the sieges of these fortresses the choice of the fronts of attack, and other matters relating to sieges.
2. Problems on the ground for sieges, such as may happen, to a subaltern officer, as simple as possible, but to be solved clearly and exactly.
These exercises refer principally to the marking out of parallels, zig-zags, and saps, as well as marking out and tracing siege batteries. They are to be undertaken under the united direction of the teachers of Special Engineering and of Artillery on the exercise ground of the Guard Engineer division.
3. Problems on field fortification, not too comprehensively drawn out, but of which the solution should be the more complete. Here belong, e.g., the fortifying of a house, a farmstead, a bridge, or other defile, covering of an advanced post, &c., &c.
c. For the Third Cœtus.
1. For the Artillerists:—Exercises in reconnaissances of fortresses. Fixing the points for laying down batteries of attack. Statements of the arming of detached works against coups de main and formal attacks. Sketches of instructions for subordinates in particular cases. Construction of ammunition and other depôts in and before a fortress. Under the guidance of the Artillery teacher of the third cœtus, with regard to the analogous regulations of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering.
2. For Engineers:—a. Reconnaissance of Spandau in reference to projects in permanent and field fortification, as well as military architecture and hydraulic works, under the guidance of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering, with the assistance of the teacher of Fortification-drawing.
b. In conjunction with the Artillerists, reconnaissance of Spandau for fixing a front of attack, securing its investment by field fortification adapted to the ground. Placing the depôts of material. Marking out the first parallel, with its communications, as well as the subsequent works of attack. Measures of the defenders, special discussion on arming the works on the spot. Under the guidance of the teacher of Exclusive Engineering, having regard to the analogous regulations of the Artillery teacher in the third cœtus.
B. FIXING AND APPORTIONING THE TIME.
a. For the First Cœtus:—
1. The visits prescribed in 1 and 2 for this cœtus are to be made in spring, whilst the theoretical course is going on, and for them are fixed, |
2 | days. |
2. The further exercises under 3, 4, and 5, are to be taken in the summer months; to them are allotted, for the visit at 3, |
1 | “ |
To the exercises at 4, | 5 | “ |
To the exercises at 5, | 6 | “ |
Total, | 14 | “ |
b. For the Second Cœtus:—
The exercises under 1, 2, 3 for this cœtus, are to be held in the Summer, and are thus regulated:—
For the visit at 1, | 2 | days. |
To the exercises at 2, | 2 | “ |
To the exercises at 3, | 8 | “ |
Total, | 12 | “ |
c. For the Third Cœtus:—
The exercises ordered for this class are to take place only in Spring, whilst the theoretical instruction is going on, and for it are fixed:—
1. For exercises by the Engineers alone, | 2 | days. |
2. For those jointly by Engineers and Artillerists, | 3 | “ |
Total, | 5 | “ |
The days of the calendar for these exercises are to be proposed by the teachers when delivering in their annual sketch of exercises, and their propositions will be laid by the Direction before the authorities for their approval.
To engage the pupils to work they are to be divided for the visits and exercises into suitable sections. Each section receives its problem from the teacher, who also nominates the president of the section. This president distributes the sub-sections among the other students, and sees that the work to be written and drawn is finished in the required time, signed by the author, and is delivered by him to the teacher. Great care is to be taken that single students do not remain unoccupied; the disturbances thence only too likely to arise are always injurious to the instruction and the discipline. In giving out problems, their principal conditions only are to be designated by the teacher, and the development left entirely to the student, or with little aid from the teacher, in order that the student may gain early that confidence and independence necessary to the soldier in carrying out matters committed to his charge.
In the exercises the workmen demanded for marking out, are to be limited as much as possible, as the students must perform the greatest part of the work themselves. The number indispensably necessary will be demanded in time by the teacher from the Guard Engineer Division through the Direction.
The necessary material, if the Guard Engineer Division can not furnish it as a loan, may be purchased at the charge of the school.
395BY GENERAL VON HOPENER.
I. OBJECT, PLAN AND STAFF OF THE INSTITUTION.
The War School (Kriegs-Schule) is intended to receive officers of all arms, who during three years of active service have given proof of ability and of particular capacity. They find there the means for acquiring the knowledge requisite for the higher ranks of the service, for the duties of officers of the staff, and for all other appointments which demand military and scientific studies of a higher and more general character than the common ones.
The course of study is for three years, and is divided amongst three classes. The courses begin on the 1st of October, and continue to the 1st of July. The number of officers who can be received is 120, neither room nor means of instruction sufficing for more. The three months of vacation in the summer are employed by the pupils in learning the service of those arms of the profession to which they do not belong.
The Special Direction of the War School consists,—
(a) Of the Military Direction.
(b) Of the Direction of Studies.
The Military Direction consists of a director, a field officer connected with the direction as inspector, and an adjutant, who directs the accounts of the Institution.
The military director is supreme, both over the military officers who are members of direction, and of the military officers who are studying in the school. The police, the discipline, and all the administration of the Institution are under his control. All the subordinate officers in the house are under his orders. The field officer attached to him is charged to look carefully to the discipline and to the due attendance at the lectures. The adjutant directs the correspondence and accounts of the establishment. The whole of the staff and the military directors are lodged in the school.
The Direction of Studies is in the hands of three field officers of literary and scientific attainments, and of two other persons, civilians 396 of Berlin, of high literary reputation. Its president is the senior officer, who is generally also the military director. It has also a secretary attached to it.
The Direction or Board of Studies is exclusively intrusted with the care of everything affecting the teaching of the Institution, and its members are bound to be frequently present at the lectures. It has also under its inspection all the means and objects required for teaching, such as the library, the collection of maps and models, the collections for physical science, and the laboratory.
The Director of Studies selects the professors of the Institution, recommends them to the superior authorities, and in case of their appointment gives them their instructions.
At the beginning of each course the direction fixes the plan of the lectures, and if any alterations in them are required, proposes them to the superior authorities for their sanction.
The Direction of Studies regulates the examinations which the officers who are candidates for admission into the school are to undergo. With this view it draws up a certain number of subjects and questions suited for the purpose, which it sends, in the spring of each year, to the chiefs of the staff of the different Corps d’Armée, in whose presence the candidates do their work. Those of the candidates whose work is satisfactory are entered at once in the school.
In order to take account of the progress of the students the board of studies makes them pass an examination in writing at the end of every three months; makes a revision of the judgment of the professors upon the papers, and conjointly with the military board of direction, gives certificates at the end of the triennial course to the officers who have gone through it completely. In these studies it is the part of the board of studies to give a judgment on the scientific merit, and that of the military board to judge the moral conduct of the officers.
The two boards make a report yearly on the progress and the conduct of the officers of the school. This report is submitted to the king by the minister of war. Particular mention is made of those officers who by extraordinary success have deserved his majesty’s favor.
II. SUBJECTS AND AIDS OF INSTRUCTION.
Attendance on the different courses is partly obligatory, partly compulsory, with this restriction, however, that every student must attend twenty lectures a week, given before 12 o’clock, including the obligatory courses. These last are those of the purely military 397 sciences, and for the first class those of mathematics. As it is impossible for most of the pupils to give sufficient attention to all the courses to be examined in them at the end of each three months, they are allowed to select those of the courses which they may choose to follow. But this choice once made must be adhered to.
The instruction is divided into theoretical courses and practical exercises.
The theoretical courses comprehend all the subjects which come within the object of the Institution. They are the following:—
1. Mathematics, a course of three years, six lectures a week, half employed in statement of the theory, half in the practical application.
2. The Higher Geodesy, in the third class, three lectures a week.
3. Physical Geography, in the first class, two lectures a week.
4. General Geography, in the first class, four lectures a week.
5. Special Geography, particularly that of the probable theaters of War for Prussia, in the second class, four lectures a week.
6. Universal History, in the first and second class, four lectures a week in each.
7. General History of Literature, in the third class, four lectures a week.
8. Logic, in the second class, four lectures a week.
9. Physical Science, in the second class, four lectures a week.
10. Chemistry, in the third class, four lectures a week.
11. Physiology of the Horse, in the second class, two lectures a week.
12. Tactics, in the first and second classes, four lectures a week in each.
13. Artillery, in the first class, three lectures a week.
14. Fortification, a course of three years in the three classes. In the first class, Field Fortification; in the second, Permanent Fortification; in the third, the Conduct of Sieges; two lectures a week in each class.
15. Military Administration, in the first class, two lectures a week.
16. Military History, in the third class, seven lectures a week.
17. Duties of the Staff, in the third class, three lectures a week.
18. Military Law, in the third class, one lecture a week.
All these lectures are given in the morning, between eight and one o’clock.
19. The French Language, a course of three years in different classes; into each of which the pupils enter according to the knowledge they possess of the language; six lectures a week for each class.
20. The Russian Language, four lectures a week.
The above two courses are in the afternoon.
The practical work is done after the end of the courses of the second and third classes. They consist in making the officers draw plans for military objects, make sketches of ground.
These exercises are completed by a journey of fifteen days under the conduct of an officer of the staff, in order to teach the service of an officer of the staff in the country.
The instruments of teaching consist of—
1. A library for the use of professors and students, and a collection of maps and plans, all under the charge of a librarian living within the school.
2. A collection of models for the courses of artillery and fortification, under the care of a commissary of the school.
3983. A cabinet of physical science, under the direction of a professor lodged in the house.
4. A laboratory and chemical apparatus, under the direction of a professor of chemistry.
There are no manuals specially used for the instruction.
For the courses of geography and of the history of war, the direction furnishes the pupils with the plans and maps required, as far as the means of the Institution allow it, or it procures them at moderate prices, to be repaid by instalments.
PROFESSORS AND STUDENTS.
The officers acting as professors in the school are officers of mature age, and high education, chosen from the garrison of Berlin. The teacher of the duties of the staff, must always belong to this corps. They are appointed to their work in the school for an indefinite time, without prejudice to their other duties.
The civil professors are generally chosen from those of the Royal University at Berlin.
With regard to discipline, all the professors are subject to the board of military direction; with regard to teaching, to the board of direction of studies.
Every professor is bound upon entering on his functions to lay before the board of direction of studies a programme stating the bearing, the successive subjects, and the arrangement of his course. This programme must be approved by the direction.
The payment of professors is fixed according to the number of their weekly lectures. It is less for the professors of Language, as they require less time to prepare their lectures.
The students of the school are under the immediate authority of the military direction; but they are ordered to look upon the professors, whilst engaged in their duties, as their superiors, so that offences against them are subject to military law.
Permission to follow the courses of the school involves for every officer the obligation to serve two years in the army for every year passed in the school.
Although the complete course is for three years, officers do not always continue it for more than one year. At the end of the year those only are allowed to return who have shown themselves deserving of this favor. Students lose the right of continuing their studies who neglect their lectures, or show indifference and a want of interest in their work, who come often too late, avoid the duties imposed upon them, or endeavor to escape their examinations.
399The Prussian Staff (Generalstab) which has been completely reorganized since the war of 1866, subserves the double purpose of providing staff officers for the duties of the active army, and of collecting and arranging the statistical, geographical, and historical information necessary for the operations of war; further, it is the school in which young officers temporarily detached from their regiments, after a course of instruction at the Military Academy, have their qualifications tested before admittance to this branch of the army, and the principal office of the trigonometrical survey of the Eastern Provinces.
The head-quarters of this organization are at Berlin, where a large building is appropriated to the various offices and departments, in which the chief of the staff, General von Moltke, resides. It has two establishments:—
1. The peace-establishment, divided into—
A. Chief état, subdivided into
(a.) The staff of the commands.
(b.) The general staff, or grosser Generalstab.
B. The accessory état, neben Etat.
2. The war establishment.
The staff of the commands is so complete during peace as to require a very unimportant augmentation, and that chiefly in the lower grades, on the outbreak of war; the framework not only exists, but the officers comprising it are already acquainted with the generals under whom they serve, and with the officers and troops with whom they have to communicate.
At the head-quarters of each corps there are: a chief of the staff—sometimes a Major-General, more frequently a Colonel, exceptionally a Lieutenant-Colonel—a field officer, and a captain; at that of each division a field officer; there is also a chief of the staff with the General Inspection of the artillery. The subordinate duties are performed by the aides-de-camp, of whom there are two at the head-quarters of each corps, and one with each division and brigade; but these officers are not included in the establishments of the general staff, and wear the uniform of their respective regiments; are in no sense of the word aides-de-camp as existing in the English army; they bear the designation of Adjutant, and may more properly be compared to our Deputy Assistants and Brigade Majors: indeed the solitary Adjutant is the only assistant to the Major-General in the performance of the brigade duties. In the time of war the staff is further supplemented by Ordonanz Offiziere attached as aids to the general officers in command.
The Grosser Generalstab includes the officers of the staff who are not employed with the commands, and is stationed in Berlin under the personal direction of the chief of the staff. The Neben or accessory Etat includes the officers employed in the strictly scientific work allotted to this department.
The combined staff at head-quarters is subdivided as follows:
a. The three Sections;
b. The section for military history;
c. Trigonometrical section;
d. Topographical section;
e. Geographical-statistical section;
f. The map-room.
The three sections have the object of collecting and arranging information respecting the home and foreign armies. The home subjects to be treated are 400 the means and warlike institutions of the State, its fortresses, magazines, ports, inland communications, the organization, recruiting, mobilization, armament, equipment, and drill of the army. The warlike systems of foreign nations, the strength and organization of their armies, regulations, and drill, the distribution of the troops, state of preparation for active service, and their systems of reinforcement and reserves, are the further subjects of inquiry. For these purposes the work is divided as follows, according to the division into—
1st Section.—Austria, Russia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Turkish Empire, Greece, Asia.
2d Section.—Prussia and North Germany, South Germany, Italy, Switzerland.
3d Section.—France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, America.
The number of officers actually belonging to the two categories of principal and accessory establishments of the staff is 115, of whom 94 belong to the first, and 21 to the second named branch. In the first there are 17 chiefs of the staff—viz., 13 with the army corps, one with the General Inspection of the artillery, and three at the head of the three sections—47 field officers, and 29 captains. In the accessory establishment there are four chiefs, five field officers, and 12 captains.
The office establishment, inclusive of the Engineer geographers—who are non-commissioned officers of the Artillery or Engineers serving permanently in the trigonometrical section in place of the officers who were till recently employed temporarily in this office, and of whom there are at present 10—consists of 18 permanent officials, not including a head messenger, two chancery servants, two house servants, and a porter.
The supernumeraries comprise 40 officers attached for a year, 20 for duty with the staff generally, the remainder for surveying; 34 surveyors who are only employed during about five months in each year, and 41 draughtsmen.
The pay of the permanent staff amounts to 206,150 thalers, or 30,922l. 10s., the material expenses being 62,250 thalers, or 9,339l. 10s. Of this latter sum about two-thirds is required for office and surveying expenses; 17,000 thalers, or 2,550l., are allowed for the annual journeys of instruction undertaken by the staff, and 3,000 thalers, or 450l., for allowances to officers traveling for scientific or professional purposes.
The actual sum disbursed for office and surveying purposes is 47,450 thalers, or 7,417l. 10s., of which 7,000 thalers, or 1,050l., are recovered by the sale of maps and works published by the staff, 2,000 thalers, or 300l., being derived from the profits of the bi-weekly military paper, “Militair Wochen Blatt.”
Besides the duties already mentioned, the staff at head-quarters undertakes:
1. The training of officers for staff purposes. To this end young officers who have passed the prescribed three years at the Military Academy, “Kriegs Akademie,” are attached for a year to the different sections, where they are required to draw up reports on strategical and tactical questions, critical reports on the military events of past eras, descriptions of the ground embraced in military operations, and of the military organization of foreign countries. These essays, when of special value, are laid before the chief of the staff.
2. The preparation of printed reports on foreign armies, which are distributed to the staff officers employed elsewhere.
3. The contribution of papers on professional subjects to the “Militair Wochen Blatt,” or military paper.
This publication, which appears twice a week, was formerly edited in the office of the staff, but has lately been in the hands of a responsible editor, a colonel on half-pay, who stands, however, in intimate connection with the office. The contribution required from the staff is twenty sheets of printed matter annually from the various departments, a much larger amount being furnished, from which the chief selects what he considers suitable for publication.
4. Military tours of instruction, for which a sum of 2,550l. is annually granted.
All the officers who can be spared from the duties of the office take part in these tours, as also a few staff officers called in from the commands, and a selection from the commanders of regiments.
They are also made on a smaller scale by the staff of the Corps, augmented by regimental officers attached for instruction, under the superintendence of the respective chiefs of the staff.
For the tour superintended by General Von Moltke, the theatre of operations and certain conditions likely to influence them are indicated, a supposed strength is given to two opposing armies, their depots and means of reinforcement are clearly laid down, and the influence likely to be exerted by the movements of other armies or bodies of troops on their flanks are taken into calculation. According to these data the senior officers present make their plans of manœuvre, employing their juniors in the preparation of all the subordinate arrangements, the movements of the troops, the selection of positions for attack or defense, the arrangements for supply, and for retaining a communication with the base. All these measures are carried out on the spot, and daily reports are made to the superintending officer, which, when necessary, are accompanied by such rough sketches as are usual during the progress of a campaign.
From these materials he is enabled to form an idea in what degree the spirit of the operations has been grasped by the directing officers, and in how far their juniors are instructed in the details of duties which they may hereafter be called on to perform.
5. A large share in the military education of the army generally, by taking part in the lectures given in the various educational establishments, and by acting as members of the commissions of examination and of studies.
6. Officers of the head-quarter staff are also detached to attend the annual corps manœuvres, those taking place in foreign countries, or the active campaigns of friendly allied nations.
Of the three sections into which the head-quarter staff is divided, the railway department forms part of the second of these sections, the chief of which selects an officer to preside over and superintend the working of it, and gather materials on inland and foreign railway communication. Certain officers are attached permanently, similarly, in fact, to those belonging to the sections of the accessory establishment, who have not only to make themselves theoretically masters of their subject, but by traveling on the various lines acquire practical acquaintance with the working of railway transport in all its phases. With a view to diffusing this knowledge as largely as possible, all officers of the staff have since 1867 been required to attend a six weeks’ course of study with this branch.
The section of military history has charge of the war archives of the Prussian army and of the library of the general staff, for additions to which latter a sum of 1,100 thalers, or 165l., annually, is voted.
402The staff of the section is occupied not only with subjects of recent and immediate interest, but with the study and arrangement of materials belonging and relating to the wars of earlier date, of which there is a valuable collection, consisting of reports, day-books, plans, and other documents, many of them legacies of the prominent actors in the scenes to which they relate. The library is well supplied with the most important works in all languages on military history, tactics, geography, and military science.
The trigonometrical and topographical sections stand in intimate connection with each other. Since 1865 the former is charged with the survey of the Eastern Provinces, a work which it is hoped will be concluded in ten years, under the direction of the chief of the staff.
Under the present organization there are always forty young officers attached to the head-quarter staff, but only for one year, their absence from regimental duty having proved detrimental, while the current work is naturally better executed when carried out by permanent employés, thus avoiding the interruption caused by constant reliefs.
The geographical-statistical is a new section, the necessity for which arose from the overcrowding of other branches, particularly of the map-room. So much material had accumulated in the other branches that it was found necessary to establish a section in which the scattered information could be condensed in the form of statistics. To this end the former geographical subsection was altered into its present form with an enlarged sphere of work, and the charge of the collection of maps was transferred to it from the map-room, which had become so much overcrowded with old materials as to have neither room nor time for the ordinary business of taking charge of the current surveys and of the maps and charts intended for distribution to the army.
With a view to facilitating the collection of the best geographical and statistical materials all the sections are placed en rapport with the new section, to which they are required to forward all special material coming under notice, and all books or pamphlets which contain geographical or statistical information. This section stands also in constant communication with the civil statistical bureau.
The duties of the “Plankammer” (map-room) are now restricted to the care of the topographical instruments of the original surveys of the topographical section, of new maps prepared for distribution, and of the financial business of the general staff. All the scientific duties of the map-room have passed over to the geographical statistical section.
There is no regulation on the admission of officers to the staff, nor is there any direct preliminary examination. They are selected from:—
1. Those who have completed the prescribed course at the Military Academy.
2. Those who notify their desire to enter the staff.
3. Those who are recommended by their superiors as officers likely to become useful staff officers.
The year of probation at head-quarters, already mentioned, affords the opportunity of forming an opinion as to the capabilities of these officers, who at its conclusion return to their regiments, where they are usually employed as adjutants, or, on the occurrence of vacancies, with the brigades, divisions, or corps.
403The following remarks are gathered from the “Report of the Military Education Commission presented to both Houses of Parliament,” in 1870, in continuation of the Report submitted in 1856, on the Systems of Military Education in France, and Prussia.
1. The chief alterations that have taken place in the system of military education in Prussia since 1856, are as follows:—
(a.) All the educational establishments have been very much enlarged, owing to the increase in the army which has taken place since 1866.
(b.) The educational requirements for a commission remain in principle the same as they were—the double examination for the rank of officer, and the exaction from every candidate for a commission of proof of both general and professional knowledge being still the peculiar feature of Prussian military education. There has been, however, a constant tendency to raise the standard of the preliminary examination in subjects of general knowledge, and to insist more strongly upon a sound liberal education as a condition of obtaining a commission. The number of Abiturienten, or men who have passed through the complete course at a public school, entering the army annually is now four times as great as it was in 1856, and there is the strongest wish still further to increase their number.
(c.) The Cadet Schools in their general character are unaltered; the introduction of the peculiar class of the Ober-prima in the Upper Cadet School at Berlin is the most important modification made in their organization. The proportion of officers supplied by the Cadet Schools continues much the same as it was in 1856. The feeling in the army, however, against preparatory military schools appears to be increasing; a strong opinion is entertained as to the narrowing effects upon the mind of exclusive class education; and a preference is very generally exhibited for officers who have had the ordinary education of civil schools. At the War Schools (Diossi, on Schools in 1856), the Artillery and Engineer School, and the War Academy (Staff School in 1856), a decided opinion was expressed as to the intellectual superiority of the Abiturienten over those who have been educated in the Cadet Corps.
(d.) The arrangements for the professional instruction of officers of corps have been very much altered. These officers now have their education up to the time of obtaining their commissions in common with candidates for the line; their special instruction does not commence at the Artillery and Engineer School until they have been in the service three or four years. For the Artillery, the course at this school has been reduced to one year, and made strictly practical in character.
(e.) The course of instruction at the War Academy, or Senior Department, has been considerably modified; though still comprising many subjects of an entirely unprofessional character, their number has been reduced; the attention of the students is more concentrated upon military studies than formerly, and a larger amount of time is devoted to practical work. In short, the object has been to render the instruction less purely theoretical than it formerly was.
(f.) The most important change, however, which has been made is in regard to the War Schools—the Schools at which officers of all arms receive their 404 professional instruction. Since 1856 they have been entirely re-organized, and placed under the direct control of the Central Educational Department; a much higher class of teachers are employed; the character of the instruction has been greatly improved; and attendance at one of these schools is, with rare exceptions, made compulsory upon every one before obtaining a commission. These schools hold a most important position in the Prussian system of military education, and the greatest pains are bestowed on making them answer the purpose for which they are intended—that of giving a thoroughly practical instruction in military subjects to candidates for commissions. The improvements made in the War Schools show the greatly increased importance attached of late years in Prussia to the professional instruction of officers.
2. However different the French and Prussian systems may be in some respects, they both agree in this—that no attempt is made to give a special military education at an early age, that a general education is made the ground-work of the professional training, and that at least up to the age of 17 or 18 the future officer receives the same kind of education as the civilian, and in the great majority of cases receives it at the ordinary schools of the country. In Austria, also, the same principle seems now to have been adopted. The cadet schools in Prussia are no exception to the rule, for the instruction at them, except in the two upper classes at Berlin, is the same as at civil schools. The principle of deferring military education to a comparatively late age is, indeed, in Prussia carried even to a greater extent than in France, for all professional instruction is postponed until after the service has been entered, and regimental duty been performed for nearly a year. The few who enter the army from the Ober-prima and Selecta of the Cadet Corps (not amounting to 70 each year) are the only individuals who receive any military instruction before joining the service, and in their case this special instruction does not commence until the age of 17. So strongly is this principle insisted upon, that even for the artillery and engineers there is no preparatory military education, and the special instruction of the officers of these arms is not given until after they have been some years in the service. The idea in Prussia is that a young man can derive no advantage from studying the theory of the military profession until he has learnt the practice of it. “What use can it be,” it was said, “to talk to a lad of the principles of tactics, when he does not even know the movements of a battalion, and perhaps has never seen one on parade?”
3. After, however, entering the service all the officers of the Prussian army receive a careful professional instruction—that given at the War Schools. The course is of an essentially practical character, comprising only strictly military subjects, and excluding such studies as mathematics and even languages.
4. The officers of the staff do not necessarily receive any special training previous to their appointment; but in Prussia this is of less importance, as from the professional education which every officer has had, those appointed to the staff, even if they have not passed through the Senior Department, must at least be acquainted with field sketching and military regulations, and know something of fortifications and artillery. Moreover, after appointment, means are taken in the “staff expeditions” which occur annually, to instruct them in their practical duties, and (as is the case also in France with the officers of the Staff Corps) to insure their keeping up the knowledge of field sketching and reconnaissance which they had previously acquired.
5. The connection which exists in Prussia between the military system and the general education of the country is remarkable. Portefée-fahnrich, examinations 405 are not only based on the course of instruction at civil schools, but have been also used as a means of raising the character of the education given at these schools. On the one hand, the advantages offered to Abiturienten and to those who have been at a university, indicate a wish to encourage men of liberal education to enter the army as officers; on the other hand, by making exemption from the ordinary period of compulsory service in the ranks dependent (among other conditions) on educational attainments, the military system has been employed as an engine for stimulating education among the middle classes.
6. The general management of military education is vested in a single officer, the Inspector-General. He is assisted by two Boards or Councils, the Board of Studies in matters connected with the general system of instruction, and the Supreme Examination Board in regard to the examinations and qualifications for commissions. The system of education has been still further centralized since 1856, especially in the case of the War Schools; and much of the progress that has been made is ascribed to the unity now given to the whole system of instruction. At the same time each of the educational institutions has its own Board of Studies, similar to the conseils d’instruction, at the French schools, who are charged with the general control of the course of study and with the duty of making suggestions for its improvement. Several of the professors, both civil and military, are always members of this Board; so that the benefit of their practical experience is secured, and the control of the instruction is never left entirely in the hands of one man, nor even exclusively of military men. The introduction of the civilian element into these Boards is deserving of notice; not merely the professors of the schools, but eminent men connected with the University of Berlin are employed upon them, and have a voice in determining the system of military education.
7. In discipline the heads of the various schools are almost entirely supreme. At the War Schools the young men are subject to military law, being already in the army; at the Cadet Schools this is not the case, but the discipline is strictly military in character. At both establishments the regulations are extremely stringent, and the slightest irregularity entails punishment. But the importance attached to the exercise of moral influence over the pupils, the personal interest taken in them, and the kindly relations existing between them and the officers, make the system of discipline much less rigidly military than it is at the French schools. Both at the War Schools and the Cadet House, specific punishments are attached to idleness.
8. In the appointment of the heads of the various schools and of the subordinate officers employed at them, great attention seems to be paid to selecting individuals fitted for the posts both by educational experience and by personal qualities. There appears to be rather a general opinion that the instructors at most of the schools are underpaid, and that this, combined with the preference frequently given to active military life, prevents the posts being much sought after by the ablest officers. On the other hand, however, selection for such appointments is always regarded as a distinction; and in the Prussian army mere honorary distinctions, altogether irrespective of material advantages, are held in much higher estimation than is probably the case in any other service.
9. The most marked point of contrast between the French and Prussian systems of military education consists in the thoroughly competitive character 406 of the former. In Prussia the principle of competition, though to a certain extent recognized, is little applied in practice, and never perhaps fully and strictly carried out. For promotion to the highest class (the Selecta) of the Berlin Cadet house there is considerable competition among the pupils, and admission to the War Academy is obtained by competitive examination open to all the officers of the army; but even in these two cases personal and other considerations come more or less into play, and the rewards can not be said to be thrown open to pure competition. All the other military examinations are simply qualifying, and there is no attempt to afford the stimulus of publishing a list of the candidates arranged in order of merit. In fact the term “competitive examination” scarcely seems to be understood in Prussia. The pecuniary assistance afforded by the State for the education of boys in the Cadet Schools is dependent solely on the circumstances and services of the father, not on the abilities of the candidate himself.
10. The objections expressed to the further introduction of a competitive system appear to be universally entertained in the Prussian army. The object in Prussia seems to be, not to attempt to establish an accurate comparison of the educational attainments of a number of individuals, but to form a general estimate of the abilities, character, and military capacity of each. The army generally are not considered to be losers by the rejection of the competitive principle; the system of inspections and of reports from inspecting officers is so elaborate, and so many checks are provided, that the character and abilities of individual officers are well known; and appointments, certainly as a general rule, are said to be made on the ground of real merit.
11. There appears to be less strictness in enforcing the regulations connected with military education in Prussia than in France. The regulations themselves are very stringent, but exceptions are constantly sanctioned—for instance, in the length of time which a pupil is permitted to remain in the same class of the Cadet Schools, in the number of failures allowed in the various examinations, &c.
12. The very great care bestowed upon the method of instruction at all the Prussian military schools, is extremely remarkable. Individual instructors are not left to follow out their own ideas of teaching, but careful regulations are issued for their guidance by the Inspector-General of Education, to which all are required strictly to conform. The system of small classes in striking contrast to the French plan of lectures to large numbers, is a remarkable instance of the anxiety to devote attention to individual students, and to adapt the instruction to varieties of ability. But the most remarkable feature of the system of teaching is the care bestowed upon the higher objects of education, upon forming and disciplining the mind and encouraging habits of reflection. The regulations for the instructors at the various schools over and over again assert that the great object to be kept in view is, not merely to impart a certain amount of positive knowledge, but to develope the intellectual faculties and to cultivate powers of thought and reasoning. The teachers are warned to avoid minute details and barren facts, which merely burden the memory and are soon forgotten, and to direct attention to broad principles, which will lay the foundation for further individual study in after life. With the same object in view, the examination questions are calculated, not merely to serve as an exercise of the memory, but to test an intelligent acquaintance with a subject, and the power of turning knowledge to a useful purpose.
1 Compiled from the “Report, and Accompanying Documents of the Royal Commission on Foreign Military Education,” 1857.
2 Thus Landsturm is the word used for the rising en masse of the Tyrol in 1809.
3 The chief authority for this paper is a very detailed account of the Staff School, (Kriegs-Schule,) by Friedländer, pp. 1-360.
4 “Histoire de mon Temps.”—Œuvres, vi., p. 99.
5 He gives himself, in his forcible style, the reasons for his attention to early military schools. He had found his young nobility excessively averse to such education. “They shrink from the army,” he said, “because in this country it is a real training for the character. Nothing is passed over in a young officer; he is obliged to maintain a prudent, regular, and sensible conduct. . . . . . This is precisely what they dislike, and one still hears the absurd and insolent expression, ‘If my boy will not work, he will do none the worse for a soldier.’ Yes, he may do for a mere man-at-arms (fantassin,) but not for an officer fit to be advanced to the highest commands, the only end of a good soldier’s life, and which requires a really extensive knowledge.”—Œuvres, ix., 117, 120.
6 This certificate, according to a statement received in conversation, is in the first instance from the officers of the company, to the effect that the ensign in question is well conducted and likely to be a desirable addition to their number; then from the major of the battalion, and from the colonel of the regiment.
7 Not from the Tutors, but from the non-resident Professors and Teachers.
8 Lectures each week in the War School, Prussia.
War School. | First Year. |
Second Year. |
Third Year. |
---|---|---|---|
Mathematics, Pure, | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Mathematics, Mixed, | 3 | 3 | 3 |
H. Geodesy, | .. | .. | 3 |
Physical Geography, | 2 | .. | .. |
General “ | 4 | .. | .. |
Special “ | .. | 4 | .. |
Universal History, | 4 | 4 | .. |
General History of Literature, | .. | .. | 4 |
Logic, | .. | 4 | .. |
Physics, | .. | 4 | .. |
Chemistry, | .. | .. | 4 |
Veterinary Art, | .. | 2 | .. |
Tactics, | 4 | 4 | .. |
Artillery, | 3 | .. | .. |
Fortification, Field, | 2 | .. | .. |
Fortification, Permanent, | .. | 2 | .. |
Fortification, Sieges, | .. | .. | 2 |
Military Administration, | 2 | .. | .. |
History of War, | .. | .. | 7 |
Staff Duty, | .. | .. | 3 |
Military Law, | .. | .. | 1 |
French, | 6 | 6 | 6 |
Russian, | 4 | 4 | 4 |
Total, | 37 | 40 | 40 |
It would be impossible to enter on a detailed criticism either of these lectures or of the essays mentioned in the note above which evidently imply great study. We invite a comparison with the French plan, which we have given elsewhere, but the difference of age must be taken into account. The mathematical course at this school is,—
1st year. Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Quadratic Equations, involving several unknown quantities, the Binomial Theorem, and the Elements of Analytical and Solid Geometry.
2d year. Analytical Geometry and the Differential and Integral Calculus.
3d year. Mechanics, Statics, Dynamics, Projectiles, and slight Applications.
Only the first year is obligatory.
9 Seminary for Teachers at Weissenfels.
10 Translated from Helldorf’s “Dienst-Vorschriften der Könighlich-Preussischen Armée.”
11 By Col. Beauchamp Walker, C. B. 1869.
Military Education in Prussia: Part II. of Military Schools and Classes of Special Instruction in the Science and Art of War in different countries. By Henry Barnard, LL.D., late U.S. Commissioner of Education.
Military System and Education in Prussia, | 277 |
I. Outline of Military System, | 281 |
1. The Standing Army, | 281 |
2. The National Militia, or First Landwehr, | 282 |
3. The Last Reserve, or Landsturm, | 282 |
Origin of the Landwehr System, | 283 |
II. Historical View of Military Education, | 284 |
Basis of the present System is a good General Education, | 284 |
Origin of the Military Schools in the Wars of the Reformation, | 284 |
School of Frederick William in 1653, | 284 |
Military Academy opened in 1765, | 286 |
Plans of Scharnhorst and Stein in 1807, | 288 |
Origin and Changes of the Division Schools, | 289 |
III. Present System of Military Education and Promotion, | 293 |
Usual Conditions and Course of obtaining a Commission, | 293 |
1. A good General Education, | 294 |
2. Actual Military Service, | 294 |
3. Professional Knowledge by Military Study, | 294 |
Central and Local Boards of Examination, | 294 |
Supreme Officer Board of Control, | 295 |
Classification and cost of Military Schools, | 295 |
IV. Examinations—general and Professional for a Commission, | 297 |
1. Preliminary or Ensign’s Examination, | 297 |
Who may be Examined, | 298 |
Time and Mode of Examination, | 298 |
Results of Examination, how ascertained, | 299 |
2. The Second, or Officers’ Examination, | 302 |
Time and Place, | 302 |
Preliminary Certificates, | 302 |
Mode—Oral and Written, | 303 |
Programme of Studies, on which Examination turns, | 304 |
V. Military Schools for Preparing Officers, | 310 |
1. The Cadet Schools, or Cadet Houses, | 310 |
Number and Classification, | 310 |
Junior Cadet House at Berlin, | 312 |
Senior Cadet House at Berlin, | 312 |
2. The Division Schools, | 320 |
Number and Location, | 320 |
Professors—Studies—Examinations, | 321 |
3. The United Artillery and Engineers’ School at Berlin, | 324 |
Admission, | 324 |
Examinations, | 325 |
Studies, | 326 |
VI. the Staff School at Berlin, | 329 |
Entrance Examination, | 330 |
Course, Method, and Subjects of Instruction, | 331 |
Final Examination, | 335 |
Appointment to the Staff Corps, | 336 |
954 VII. Elementary Military Schools for Non-commissioned Officers, | 336 |
1. Military Orphan-Houses, | 336 |
A. Military Orphan-House at Potsdam, | 337 |
B. Military Orphan-House at Annaburg, | 342 |
2. The School Division, or Non-Commissioned Officers’ School, | 345 |
3. Regimental Schools, | 347 |
4. The Noble-School at Liegnitz, | 348 |
VIII. General Remarks on the System of Military Education in Prussia, | 348 |
Appendix, | 351 |
The Artillery and Engineers’ School at Berlin, | 351 |
Object and Course of Study, | 351 |
Staff And Authorities, | 351 |
Superior Authorities, or Curatorium, | 352 |
Executive Authorities, | 352 |
Course of Instruction, | 357 |
A. General Course, | 357 |
B. Instruction in Detail, | 358 |
Financial Matters, | 365 |
Programmes of Principal Subjects Taught, | 367 |
1. Artillery, | 367 |
Preliminary Instruction:—a. Mathematics; b. Physics; c. Chemistry; d. Tactics; e. Fortification; f. Veterinary Art, | 367 |
A. First Cœtus, | 368 |
1. Arms, | 368 |
2. Gunpowder, | 368 |
3. Cannon, | 368 |
4. Gun-Carriages, | 368 |
5. Military Combustibles, | 368 |
6. Movement of Cannon, | 368 |
7. Firing, | 368 |
8. Small and Side-Arms, | 368 |
B. Second Cœtus, | 369 |
1. Organization of Artillery, | 369 |
2. Use in the field, | 369 |
3. Use in the Siege, | 369 |
a. For Attack; b. For Defense, | 369 |
C. Third Cœtus, | 369 |
1. Organization of Artillery Service, | 370 |
2. Artillery regarded as an Arm, | 370 |
3. Artillery in Technical and Administrative point of view, | 370 |
4. Progress and Literature of Artillery, | 371 |
D. General Distribution of Time for each Cœtus, | 371 |
2. General and Special Engineering in the First and Second Cœtus, | 373 |
A. First Cœtus | 373 |
a. In Field Fortification; b. in Permanent Fortification, | 373 |
B. Second Cœtus, | 374 |
The Applied Arts in Attack and Defense, &c., | 374 |
3. Exclusive Engineering in the Third Cœtus, | 375 |
1. Application of Rules to Regular Fortresses, | 375 |
2. Theory of Constructions, Materials, Modes of Building, | 375 |
4. Hydraulic Construction in the Third Cœtus, | 377 |
1. General Principles of Hydraulic Architecture, | 377 |
2. Internal Navigation, Harbors, Bridges, &c., | 378 |
5. Tactics. Construction of Cannon, | 378 |
6. Mathematics, | 380 |
A. First Cœtus—Arithmetic, Algebra, Plane Geometry, Plane Trigonometry, | 381 |
B. Second Cœtus—Geometry of Solids, Solid Trigonometry, Projection, Conic Sections, | 382 |
C. Statics, Geostatics, Hydrostatics, | 382 |
D. Dynamics and Hydraulics, | 382 |
955 7. Practical Artillery Exercises, | 384 |
1. First Cœtus, | 385 |
A. Visits—a. Foundry and the Boring-Machine; b. Examination of Ordnance, Carriages, &c.; c. Workshops, | 385 |
B. Exercises—a. Small-Arms; b. Management of Machines, | 386 |
2. Second Cœtus, | 386 |
Tracing Batteries; Placing Ordnance; Ordnance Carriages and Wagons; Sieges, | 387 |
3. First and Second Cœtus, | 388 |
Proof of Powder; Artillery Practice; Laboratory, | 389 |
4. Third Cœtus, | 390 |
Visit to and practice in Workshops; Iron Foundry; Boring-Machine, | 390 |
Ammunition; Cannon; Gun-Carriages; Rules of placing Guns; Sham Siege, | 391 |
8. Practical Exercises in Fortification, | 392 |
The War Or Staff School at Berlin, | 395 |
1. Objects and Plan; 2. Instruction; 3. Professors and Students, | 397 |
REVISED EDITION—1872. | |
I. Prussian Staff in 1869, | 399 |
1. Peace establishment. 2. War establishment, | 399 |
Staff at head-quarters of each army corps, | 399 |
General Staff at Berlin—Sectional work, | 400 |
II. Prussian Military Education in 1869, | 403 |
1. Changes since 1856, | 403 |
2. General education more and more the basis of professional studies, | 404 |
3. Theory of military perfection attended to after practice, | 404 |
4. Military examinations made to advance civil education, | 405 |
5. Liberal education encouraged in officers, | 405 |
6. General management of all military education vested in a single officer, | 405 |
Assisted by Board of Studies and Board of Examination, | 405 |
7. The heads of each school supreme in discipline, | 405 |
8. Educational experience valued in the head of a school, | 405 |
9. Competition not very extensively recognized, | 406 |
Its place supplied by personal knowledge of each individual, | 406 |
10. Great care bestowed on the methods of instruction, | 406 |
The spelling “militair” (for expected “militär”) occurs frequently in this section.
Out of its twenty first directors
twenty-first
“appeared to him in painful
contrast
“ missing
instead of the examination for the
Swordknot, being declared
Swordknot.
for the commission of second
lieutenant.
lieutentant
or unsatisfactory (ungenügend.)
the principles of plan drawing
(Terrain-Darstellung;)
both closing ) missing
3. Topographical survey of a locality
(theoretically and practically,)
theorectically
the average number at a lesson would not be
more than twenty-three.
more that
appointed by the Curatorium as his
assistant.
Cutatorium
twelve military and eleven civilian
professors and teachers.
partial word “teach-/” missing at page break
Besides military subjects, it includes a
very full
partial word “sub-/” missing at line break
At their meetings, all matters relating to
instruction
text has “in-/instruction” at line break
pupils employed as superintendents receive
small pecuniary allowances
recieve
The following plan of instruction was
prepared by Dr. Harnisch
. invisible
with the mode of discovery and cure of the
same
text has “of / of” at line break
PROGRAMMES OF THE PRINCIPAL
SUBJECTS
PRINCIPLE
3. Problems on field
fortification
8.
the “Militair Wochen Blatt,” or
military paper.
spelling unchanged