Project Gutenberg's Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Latin for Beginners Author: Benjamin Leonard D'Ooge Release Date: April 25, 2006 [EBook #18251] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** Produced by Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was made using scans of public domain material by TextKit.com) [Transcriber's Notes: This text file is intended for users whose computers or text readers cannot display either of the utf-8 versions (plain text or html). A few necessary changes have been made. The macron (straight line, representing long vowels) has been replaced everywhere by a circumflex accent: â ê î ô û Â Ê Î Ô Û The "y" in "Pythia", "Lydia" and "peristylum" is also long, and is marked "y:" in vocabulary lists. The breve symbol, representing a short vowel, has been omitted. This symbol was used only in the introductory section on pronunciation (§1-18), and in one or two vocabulary entries. The notation [oo] represents short "oo". Letters shown with combined breve and macron have been expanded as "-ei or -êi", "-ius or -îus". To make this unpaginated e-text easier to use, each chapter's Special Vocabulary has been included with its chapter _in addition to_ its original location near the end of the book. The same was done with the irregular verbs. The vocabulary lists are at the beginning of each chapter, as far as possible from the Exercises. Boldface is shown by «guillemets», italics by _lines_. The variation between "æ" (English text) and "ae" (Latin text) is as in the original. Bracketed passages in the original are shown in [[double brackets]].] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * LATIN FOR BEGINNERS BY BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE, Ph.D. Professor in the Michigan State Normal College Ginn and Company Boston · New York · Chicago · London Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D'Ooge Entered at Stationers' Hall All Rights Reserved 013.4 The Athenæum Press Ginn and Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A. * * * * * PREFACE To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons. The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials. Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar. Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed. It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers: The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions. The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge's "Dictionary of Secondary Latin" and Browne's "Latin Word List" as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar. The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together. Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course. Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar's army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation. Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar. The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times. A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout. As an aid to teachers using this book a "Teacher's Manual" has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution. BENJAMIN L. D'OOGE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE CONTENTS Lesson Page TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4 PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11 PART II. WORDS AND FORMS I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE 12-24 VII-VIII. FIRST OR _Â_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order_ 25-30 IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE 31-35 XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37 XII. NOUNS IN «-ius» AND «-ium»--GERMÂNIA 38-39 XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in «-er» and «-ir»--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41 XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43 XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46 XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47 XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE «is, ea, id»--DIALOGUE 48-50 XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of «sum»-- DIALOGUE 51-53 XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amô» AND «moneô» 54-56 XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amô» AND «moneô»-- _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57 XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amô» AND «moneô»-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) 58-59 XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61 XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regô» AND «audiô»-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) 61-63 XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regô» AND «audiô»-- _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_ 63-65 XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regô» AND «audiô» 65-66 XXVI. VERBS IN «-iô»--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of «capiô»--_The Imperative_ 66-68 XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of «amô» and «moneô»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71 XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «regô» AND «audiô»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 72-73 XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «-iô» VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75 XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent_ 75-78 XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF «sum»-- DIALOGUE 79-81 XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 81-83 XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85 XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) 86-87 XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90 XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions_ 90-93 XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF «possum»--_The Infinitive used as in English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96 XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_) 97-101 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106 XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107 XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems 108-110 XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112 XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY'S COUNTRY 113-115 XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION 116-117 XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_-- Declension of «domus»--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121 XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _Ê_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_ --DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_) 121-123 XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Concluded_) 123-126 L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN «ipse» AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE «îdem»--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127 LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES «hic», «iste», «ille»--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) 128-130 LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) 130-132 LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135 LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with Comparatives_ 135-136 LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)-- Declension of «plûs» 137-138 LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)-- _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_ 138-139 LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142 LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_ 142-144 LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_-- CÆSAR IN GAUL 144-146 LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_ 146-147 PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_ 148-152 LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153 LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence of Tenses_ 153-155 LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_ 156-159 LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF «possum»--_Verbs of Fearing_ 160-161 LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164 LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS «volô», «nôlô», «mâlô»-- _Ablative Absolute_ 164-166 LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «fîô»--_Subjunctive of Result_ 167-168 LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate Accusative_ 169-171 LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH «cum»--_Ablative of Specification_ 171-173 LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_-- _Predicate Genitive_ 173-177 LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «eô»--_Indirect Statements_ 177-180 LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB «ferô»-- _Dative with Compounds_ 181-183 LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect Questions_ 183-185 LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for Which_ 185-186 LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description_ 186-188 LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative_ 189-190 LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192 LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193 READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195 THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215 APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260 APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264 APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282 SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331 ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343 INDEX 344-348 LATIN FOR BEGINNERS TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION «What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters. [Footnote 1: Pronounce _Lâ´shi-um_.] «The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome's power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin. «The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art. «Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day. «Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms. «Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning. «Review Questions». Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome's power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin? PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN THE ALPHABET «1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no _w_ and no _j_. «2.» The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other letters are consonants. «3.» _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I consonant_. Thus in Iû-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1] [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.] «4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below. «5.» The vowels have the following sounds: VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES â as in _father_ hâc, stâs a like the first _a_ in _aha´_, never as in _hat_ a´-mat, ca-nâs ê as in _they_ tê´-la, mê´-ta e as in _met_ te´-net, mer´-cês î as in _machine_ ser´-tî, prâ´-tî i as in _bit_ si´-tis, bi´-bî ô as in _holy_ Rô´-ma, ô´-ris o as in _wholly_, never as in _hot_ mo´-do, bo´-nôs û as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_ û´-mor, tû´-ber u as in _full_, or as _oo_ in _foot_ ut, tû´-tus NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_. [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ^, short ones ... ] [Transcriber's Note: In this version of the text, long vowels are shown with a circumflex accent ("hat") and short vowels are unmarked, as described in the introductory notes.] «6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES «ae» as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae´-dae «au» as _ou_ in _out_ gau´-det «ei» as _ei_ in _eight_ dein´-de «eu» as _e´[oo]_ (a short _e_ followed by a short _u_ in one syllable) seu «oe» like _oi_ in _toil_ foe´-dus «ui» like _[oo]´i_ (a short _u_ followed by a short _i_ in one syllable. Cf. English _we_) cui, huic NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English. «7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES «c» is always like _c_ in _cat_, never as in _cent_ ca´-dô, ci´-bus, cê´-na «g» is always like _g_ in _get_, never as in _gem_ ge´-mô, gig´-nô «i consonant» is always like _y_ in _yes_ iam, io´-cus «n» before _c, qu_, or _g_ is like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare the sound of _n_ in _anchor_) an´-co-ra (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here _u_ has the value of consonant _v_ and is not counted a vowel in´-quit, quî, lin´-gua, san´-guis, suâ´-de-ô «s» is like _s_ in _sea_, never as in _ease_ ro´-sa, is «t» is always like _t_ in _native_, never as in _nation_ ra´-ti-ô, nâ´-ti-ô «v» is like _w_ in _wine_, never as in _vine_ «vî´-num», «vir» «x» has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and is like _x_ in _extract_, not as in _exact_ «ex´-trâ», «ex-âc´-tus» «bs» is like _ps_ and «bt» like _pt_ «urbs», «ob-ti´-ne-ô» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like _c_, _p_, _t_ «pul´-cher», «Phoe´-bê», «the-â´-trum» _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples, «mit´-tô», «Ap´pi-us», «bel´-lum.» SYLLABLES «8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tâ´-te» has three syllables, «au-di-en´-dus» has four. _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English _inside_ with Latin în-sî´-de. «9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows: 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «a-mâ´-bi-lis», «me-mo´-ri-a», «in-te´-re-â», «a´-best», «pe-rê´-git».[3] [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eâ», «ab-est», «sub-âctus», «per-êgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.] 2. Combinations of two or more consonants: _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_. Thus «pû´-bli-cus», «a´-grî». EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and _rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus «ab´-lu-ô», «ab-rum´-pô», «il´-le», «fer´-rum». _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «mag´-nus», «e-ges´-tâs», «vic-tô´-ri-a», «hos´-pes», «an´-nus», «su-bâc´-tus». [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fûnc-tus, sânc-tus.] 3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul´-ti-ma_; the one next to the last, the _pe-nult´_; the one before the penult, the _an´-te-pe-nult´_. «10.» EXERCISE Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: Vâ´de ad formî´cam, Ô píger, et cônsî´derâ víâs éius et dísce sapiéntiam: quae cum nôn hábeat dúcem nec praeceptô´rem nec prî´ncipem, párat in aestâ´te cíbum síbi et cóngregat in mésse quod cómedat. [[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]] QUANTITY «11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity. «12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (^) or short. In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short. [Transcriber's Note: The wording of § 12 is as in the original, except that the macron (long-vowel symbol) has been replaced with a circumflex accent ("hat"), and the breve (short-vowel symbol) has been omitted.] 1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as «po-ê´-ta», «tra´-hô». 2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_, and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus «a´-mant», «a-man´-dus», «a-mâ´-bam», «a-mâ´-bat», «a´-ni-mal», «a´-mor». 3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus «în´-fe-rô», «re´-gêns», «sân´-xî», «sânc´-tus». 4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked. «13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels. 1. «A syllable is short», _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as «a´-mô», «pi´-gri». NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «me-mo´-ri-am» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant. 2. «A syllable is long», _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cû´-rô», «poe´-nae», «aes-tâ´-te». _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus». NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_). 3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant. NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cur´-rô» as it does «cû´-rô», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mol´-lis» and «mô´-lis», «â-mis´-sî» and «â-mi´-sî». ACCENT «14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mên´-sa», «Cae´-sar». «15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nê´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus». NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.) «16.» Certain little words called _enclit´ics_[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», _and_; «-ve», _or_; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rêgna´ve», «audit´ne». [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.] HOW TO READ LATIN «17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word. «18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter. EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6] The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, 'mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Cadêbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vîcum Alpicum Gelû nivequ(e) adolêscêns, Vêxillum cum signô ferêns, Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! Frôns trîstis, micat oculus Velut ê vâgînâ gladius; Sonantque similês tubae Accentûs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! In domibus videt clârâs Focôrum lûcês calidâs; Relucet glaciês âcris, Et rumpit gemitûs labrîs, Excelsior! "Try not the Pass!" the old man said; "Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!" And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! Dîcit senex, "Nê trânseâs! Suprâ nigrêscit tempestâs; Lâtus et altus est torrêns." Clâra vênit vôx respondêns, Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! Iam lûcêscêbat, et frâtrês Sânctî Bernardî vigilês Ôrâbant precês solitâs, Cum vôx clâmâvit per aurâs, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Sêmi-sepultus viâtor Can(e) â fîdô reperîtur, Comprêndêns pugnô gelidô Illud vêxillum cum signô, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior! Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lûce frîgidâ pulchrum; Et caelô procul exiêns Cadit vôx, ut Stella cadêns, Excelsior! [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_, October, 1898.] PART II WORDS AND FORMS LESSON I FIRST PRINCIPLES «19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus, _Galba is a farmer_ «Galba est agricola» _The sailor fights_ «Nauta pugnat» In each of these sentences there are two parts: SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ «Galba» _The sailor_ _fights_ «Nauta» «pugnat» 2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose. _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, "instead of," and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_. 3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers. _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. «20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows: SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object) _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_, _he comes_. «21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_. «22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_: 1. «America est patria mea» _America is fatherland my_ 2. «Agricola fîliam amat» _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_ 3. «Fîlia est Iûlia» _(His) daughter is Julia_ 4. «Iûlia et agricola sunt in însulâ» _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_ 5. «Iûlia aquam portat» _Julia water carries_ 6. «Rosam in comîs habet» _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_ 7. «Iûlia est puella pulchra» _Julia is (a) girl pretty_ 8. «Domina fîliam pulchram habet» _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_ _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article «the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. LESSON II FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer's; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation». «24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare «Naut-a pugnat» _The sailor fights_ «Naut-ae pugnant» _The sailors fight_ «25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_. «26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each. «agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] «aqua», _water_ (aquarium) «causa», _cause, reason_ «do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) «filia», _daughter_ (filial) «fortû´na», _fortune_ «fuga», _flight_ (fugitive) «iniû´ria», _wrong, injury_ «lûna», _moon_ (lunar) «nauta», _sailor_ (nautical) «puel´la», _girl_ «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», _land_ (terrace) [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», _cause_, no comparison is needed.] «27.» Compare again the sentences «Nauta pugna-t» _The sailor fights_ «Nautae pugna-nt» _The sailors fight_ In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural. «28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._ «29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._ «30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb's subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_. «ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) «labô´ra-t» " " " _labors, is laboring, does labor_ «nûntia-t»[2] " " " _announces, is announcing, does announce_ «porta-t» " " " _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) «pugna-t» " " " _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious) [Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nûntiô» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)] «31.» EXERCISES I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries. II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fîlia labôrat, fîliae labôrant. 5. Nauta nûntiat, nautae nûntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat. [Illustration: DOMINA] LESSON III FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady. 1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences: «Domina fîliam amat» «Fîliam domina amat» «Amat fîliam domina» «Domina amat fîliam» _The lady loves her daughter_ «Fîlia dominam amat» «Dominam fîlia amat» «Amat dominam fîlia» «Fîlia amat dominam» _The daughter loves the lady_ _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning. 2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _'s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_ «33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of _who?_ | and use | «domina» | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «do´min-a» | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ae» | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady's_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-am» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «domin-ae» | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-â´rum» | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies'_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-âs» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that _a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae». _b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ârum». _c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-âs». _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending. «34.» EXERCISE Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses. 1. Silva, silvâs, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrârum, terrae, terrâs. 4. Aquâs, causam, lûnâs. 5. Fîliae, fortûnae, lûnae. 6. Iniûriâs, agricolârum, aquârum. 7. Iniûriârum, agricolae, puellâs. 8. Nautam, agricolâs, nautâs. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvârum. LESSON IV FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] [See Transcriber's Note at beginning of text.] NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diâ´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lâtô´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _c[oo]i´y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: «Fîlia agricolae nautam amat», _the farmer's daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_ What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it? «36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_ «37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_ «38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_ [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT] «39.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. 1. Diâna est dea. 2. Lâtôna est dea. 3. Diâna et Lâtôna sunt deae. 4. Diâna est dea lûnae. 5. Diâna est fîlia Lâtônae. 6. Lâtôna Diânam amat. 7. Diâna est dea silvârum. 8. Diâna silvam amat. 9. Diâna sagittâs portat. 10. Diâna ferâs silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrârum pugnant. For the order of words imitate the Latin above. II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona's daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers' daughters do labor. 4. The farmer's daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls' flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors' wrongs. 7. The farmer's daughter labors. 8. Diana's arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land. «40.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding. 1. Quis est Diâna? 2. Cuius fîlia est Diâna? 3. Quis Diânam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittâs portat? 6. Cuius fîliae labôrant? LESSON V FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «corô´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fâ´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecû´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victô´ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nârrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1] [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».] Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_. «42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-îs». NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended. _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortûna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_. These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists. _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following? The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another. «44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence «Nauta fugam nûntiat», _the sailor announces the flight_ Here the verb, «nûntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects: 1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_ According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: «45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._ _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object. «46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have «Nauta agricolîs fugam nûntiat» «47.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. _Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._ I. 1. Quis nautîs pecûniam dat? 2. Fîliae agricolae nautîs pecûniam dant. 3. Quis fortûnam pugnae nûntiat? 4. Galba agricolîs fortunam pugnae nûntiat. 5. Cui domina fâbulam nârrat? 6. Fîliae agricolae domina fâbulam nârrat. 7. Quis Diânae corônam dat? 8. Puella Diânae corônam dat quia Diânam amat. 9. Dea lûnae sagittâs portat et ferâs silvârum necat. 10. Cuius victôriam Galba nûntiat? 11. Nautae victôriam Galba nûntiat. Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise. II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana's. [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.] LESSON VI FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grâta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sôla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iûlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cûr», _why_ «nôn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cûr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] «48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._ «49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-â» and the ablative plural in «-îs». _a._ Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the final -â of the ablative is long, as, _Nom._ fîlia _Abl._ fîliâ _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural. _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortûna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes 1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_. 2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_. 3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_. _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following? In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o'clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome. «51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative. «52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._ «53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are «â»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_ «dê», _from, down from_ «ê»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_ «cum», _with_ «in», _in, on_ [Footnote 1: «â» and «ê» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.] 1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon. «54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe. [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ "When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter's morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. 'My pretty boy,' said he, 'has your father a grindstone?' 'Yes, sir,' said I. 'You are a fine little fellow,' said he. 'Will you let me grind my ax on it?'"] You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_. «55.» Examine the sentences «Puella est parva», _the girl is little_ «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._ _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following: Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy. «56.» DIALOGUE JULIA AND GALBA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. Quis, Galba, est Diâna? G. Diâna, Iûlia, est pulchra dea lûnae et silvârum. I. Cuius fîlia, Galba, est Diâna? G. Lâtônae fîlia, Iûlia, est Diâna. I. Quid Diâna portat? G. Sagittâs Diâna portat. I. Cûr Diâna sagittâs portat? G. Diâna sagittâs portat, Iûlia, quod malâs ferâs silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lâtôna fîliam? G. Amat, et fîlia Lâtônam amat. I. Quid fîlia tua parva portat? G. Corônâs pulchrâs fîlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fîlia tua corônâs pulchrâs dat? G. Diânae corônâs dat. I. Quis est cum fîliâ tuâ? Estne sôla? G. Sôla nôn est; fîlia mea parva est cum ancillâ meâ. _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocâre_, "to call"). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue. _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nôn pugnat», _he is not fighting._ LESSON VII THE FIRST OR _Â_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cêna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallî´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «în´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) «57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Â_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table: +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | do´min-a | _the lady_ | The subject | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor | | | | or _the lady's_ | of something | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-â | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (_with, by_), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (_in, at_) | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | PLURAL | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-â´rum | _of the ladies_, | | | | | or _the ladies'_ | | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-îs | _to_ or _for | The same as | | | | the ladies_ | the singular | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-âs | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-îs | _from, with, by_, | | | | | _in, the ladies_ | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ «58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base». Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular. «59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally. «pugna», «terra», «lûna», «ancil´la», «corô´na», «în´sula», «silva» «60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, "Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty." And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, "Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home." Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender». Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rûpês», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rûpês» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin. «61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine. «62.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. I. 1. Agricola cum fîliâ in casâ habitat. 2. Bona fîlia agricolae cênam parat. 3. Cêna est grâta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fîliam laudat. 4. Deinde fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam vocat. 5. Gallînae fîliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fîliae bonâs cênâs nôn parant. 7. Fîlia agricolae est grâta dominae. 8. Domina in însulâ magnâ habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecûniam dat. II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter's good dinner is pleasing to the farmer. [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)] [Illustration] What Latin words are suggested by this picture? «63.» CONVERSATION Answer the questions in Latin. 1. Quis cum agricolâ in casâ habitat? 2. Quid bona fîlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam? 5. Cuius fîlia est grâta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecûniam dat? LESSON VIII FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clâra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lâta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) «64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a». «65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._ «66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows: NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., _lady_ _good_ SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ do´mina bona -a _Gen._ dominae bonae -ae _Dat._ dominae bonae -ae _Acc._ dominam bonam -am _Abl._ dominâ bonâ -â PLURAL _Nom._ dominae bonae -ae _Gen._ dominâ´rum bonâ´rum -ârum _Dat._ dominîs bonîs -îs _Acc._ dominâs bonâs -âs _Abl._ dominîs bonîs -îs _a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_; «ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortû´na magna», _great fortune._ «67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fîlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-âbus» instead of «-îs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension: «dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-») SINGULAR PLURAL _Nom._ dea bona deae bonae _Gen._ deae bonae deâ´rum bonâ´rum _Dat._ deae bonae deâ´bus bonîs _Acc._ deam bonam deâs bonâs _Abl._ deâ bonâ dea´bus bonîs _a._ In the same way decline together «fîlîa parva». «68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same. In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_. In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_ 1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows: _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_ Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._ 2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as «fîlia mea», _my daughter_; «mea fîlia», _«my» daughter_; «casa Galbae», _Galba's cottage_; «Galbae casa», _«Galba's» cottage_. Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: «Fîlia mea agricolîs cênam parat» (normal order) «Mea fîlia agricolîs parat cênam» («mea» and «cênam» emphatic) «Agricolîs fîlia mea cênam parat» («agricolîs» emphatic) 3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words. «Fîlia mea casam parvam nôn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fîlia mea parvam casam nôn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fîlia mea casam nôn amat» («parvam» very emphatic) 4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English. 5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well. «69.» EXERCISE First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. _Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._ 1. Longae nôn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meâ casâ? Nôn sunt. 3. Quis lâtâ in silvâ habitat? Diâna, lûnae clârae pulchra dea, lâtâ in silvâ habitat. 4. Nautae altâs et lâtâs amant aquâs. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iûlia? In tuâ casa est Lesbia et Iûlia est in meâ. 7. Estne Italia lâta terra? Longa est Italia, nôn lâta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fâbulam novam nârrat? Fîliâbus dominae clârae fâbulam novam nârrat. 9. Clâra est însula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lâtôna? Lâtôna laudat fîliam. * * * * * «First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505» * * * * * LESSON IX THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «bellum, -î», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cônstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -î, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -î», m., _horse_ (equine) «frûmentum, -î», n., _grain_ «lêgâtus, -î», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mârcus, -î», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mûrus, -î», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidânus, -î», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -î», n., _town_ «pîlum, -î», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -î», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -î, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cûrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ «70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender. «71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-î». «72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine. «73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows: «dominus» (base «domin-»), «pîlum» (base «pîl-»), m., _master_ n., _spear_ TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pîlum -um _Gen._ dominî -î pîlî -î _Dat._ dominô -ô pîlô -ô _Acc._ dominum -um pîlum -um _Abl._ dominô -ô pîlô -ô _Voc._ domine -e pîlum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominî -î pîla -a _Gen._ dominô´rum -ôrum pîlô´rum -ôrum _Dat._ dominîs -îs pîlîs -îs _Acc._ dominôs -ôs pîla -a _Abl._ dominîs -îs pîlîs -îs [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».] _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-e», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a. «74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pîlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural. _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a». _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s». _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike. _e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. «75.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia est bona», _Lesbia is good_ «Lesbia est ancilla», _Lesbia is a maidservant_ We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun». «76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._ [Illustration: PILA] «77.» DIALOGUE GALBA AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. G. Quis, Mârce, est lêgâtus cum pîlô et tubâ? M. Lêgâtus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidô Sextus cum fîliâbus habitat. G. Amantne oppidânî Sextum? M. Amant oppidânî Sextum et laudant, quod magnâ cum cônstantiâ pugnat. G. Ubi, Mârce, est ancilla tua? Cûr nôn cênam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equô lêgâtî aquam et frûmentum dat. G. Cûr nôn servus Sextî equum dominî cûrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mûrum oppidî properant. Oppidânî bellum parant.[3] [Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.] [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parô» means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.] [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA] «78.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. 1. Ubi fîliae Sextî habitant? 2. Quem oppidânî amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equô lêgâtî dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cûrat? 5. Quis ad mûrum cum Sextô properat? 6. Quid oppidânî parant? LESSON X SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «amîcus, -î», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germânia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -î», m., _people_ «Rhênus, -î», m., _the Rhine_ «vîcus, -î», m., _village_ «79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pîlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pîlum bonum», _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pîl- bon- TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pîlum bonum -um _Gen._ dominî bonî -î pîlî bonî -î _Dat._ dominô bonô -ô pîlô bonô -ô _Acc._ dominum bonum -um pîlum bonum -um _Abl._ dominô bonô -ô pîlô bonô -ô _Voc._ domine bone -e pîlum bonum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominî bonî -î îla bona -a _Gen._ dominô´rum bonô´rum -ôrum îlô´rum bonô´rum -ôrum _Dat._ dominîs bonîs -is îlîs bonîs -îs _Acc._ dominôs bonôs -ôs îla bona -a _Abl._ dominîs bonîs -îs îlîs bonîs -îs Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mûrus altus», «frûmentum novum». «80.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia ancilla est bona», _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Fîlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_ In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case. «81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._ «82.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Patria servî bonî, vîcus servôrum bonôrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidî magnî, in oppidô magnô, in oppidîs magnîs. 3. Cum pîlîs longîs, ad pîla longa, ad mûrôs lâtôs. 4. Lêgâte male, amîcî legâtî malî, cêna grâta dominô bonô. 5. Frûmentum equôrum parvôrum, domine bone, ad lêgâtôs clârôs. 6. Rhênus est in Germâniâ, patriâ meâ. 7. Sextus lêgâtus pîlum longum portat. 8. Oppidânî bonî Sextô lêgâtô clârâ pecûniam dant. 9. Malî servî equum bonum Mârcî dominî necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iûlia fîlia bona labôrant. 11. Mârcus nauta in însulâ Siciliâ habitat. II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer's daughter. [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cûrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.] [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)] LESSON XI ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «arma, armôrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fâma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «têlum, -î», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dûrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rômânus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rômânus, -î», m., _a Roman_ «83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonî bonae bonî _Dat._ bonô bonae bonô _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonô bonâ bonô _Voc._ bone bona bonum PLURAL _Nom._ bonî bonae bona _Gen._ bonôrum bonârum bonôrum _Dat._ bonîs bonîs bonîs _Acc._ bonôs bonâs bona _Abl._ bonîs bonîs bonîs _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case. _b._ Decline «grâtus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um». «84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions: «85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_ SINGULAR _Nom._ nauta bonus _Gen._ nautae bonî _Dat._ nautae bonô _Acc._ nautam bonum _Abl._ nautâ bonô _Voc._ nauta bone PLURAL _Nom._ nautae bonî _Gen._ nautârum bonôrum _Dat._ nautîs bonîs _Acc._ nautâs bonôs _Abl._ nautîs bonîs _Voc._ nautae bonî «86.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Est[1] in vîcô nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amîcus nautae bonî. 3. Sextus nautae bonô galeam dat. 4. Populus Rômânus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautâ bonô praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et têla lêgâtî Rômânî? 7. Nautae bonî ad bellum properant. 8. Fâma nautârum bonôrum est clâra. 9. Pugnae sunt grâtae nautîs bonîs. 10. Oppidânî nautâs bonôs cûrant. 11. Cûr, nautae bonî, malî agricolae ad Rhênum properant? 12. Malî agricolae cum bonîs nautîs pugnant. II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba's daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers? [Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._] [Illustration: GALEAE] LESSON XII NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fîlius, fîlî», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvî, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladî», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dî», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelî», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fînitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fînitimî, -ôrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germânus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germânus, -î», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ «87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-î» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iî», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fîlî» from «fîlius» (_son_), «praesi´dî» from «praesi´dium» (_garrison_). «88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fîlius», end in «-î» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-e», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lî», _O Vergil_; «fîlî», _O son._ _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike. «89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fîlius» (base fîli-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_ SINGULAR _Nom._ praesidium fîlius _Gen._ praesi´dî fîlî _Dat._ praesidiô fîliô _Acc._ praesidium fîlium _Abl._ praesidiô fîliô _Voc._ praesidium fîlî The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fîlius». Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fîlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clârum», _the famous battle._ «90.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Frûmentum bonae terrae, gladî malî, bellî longî. 2. Cônstantia magna, praesidia magna, clâre Vergi´lî. 3. Male serve, Ô clârum oppidum, male fîlî, fîliî malî, fîlî malî. 4. Fluvî longî, fluviî longî, fluviôrum longôrum, fâma praesi´dî magnî. 5. Cum gladiîs parvîs, cum deâbus clârîs, ad nautâs clârôs. 6. Multôrum proeliôrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dûra. GERMÂNIA II. Germânia, patria Germânôrum, est clâra terra. In Germâniâ sunt fluviî multî. Rhênus magnus et lâtus fluvius Germâniae est. In silvîs lâtîs Germâniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germânii in oppidîs magnis et in vîcîs parvîs habitant et multî sunt agricolae bonî. Bella Germânôrum sunt magna et clâra. Populus Germâniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimîs pugnat. Fluvius Rhênus est fînitimus oppidîs[1] multîs et clârîs. [Footnote 1: Dative with «fînitimus». (See §43.)] LESSON XIII SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «ager, agrî», m., _field_ (acre) «côpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornêlius, Cornê´lî», m., _Cornelius_ «lôrî´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemî», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerî», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rôma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scûtum, -î», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virî», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiônârius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiônâriî, -ôrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «lîber, lîbera, lîberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «lîberî, -ôrum», m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iî» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-î», as in nouns.] «91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows: «92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_ BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir ---- _Gen._ puerî agrî virî -î _Dat._ puerô agrô virô -ô _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerô agrô virô -ô PLURAL _Nom._ puerî agrî virî -î _Gen._ puerôrum agrôrum virôrum -ôrum _Dat._ puerîs agrîs virîs -îs _Acc._ puerôs agrôs virôs -ôs _Abl._ puerîs agrîs virîs -îs _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a). _b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular. _c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager». «93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus, MASC. FEM. NEUT. lîber lîbera lîberum (_free_) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like «ager» For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._ «94.» Decline together the words «vir lîber», «terra lîbera», «frûmentum lîberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum» «95.» ITALIA[1] First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. Magna est Italiae fâma, patriae Rômânôrum, et clâra est Rôma, domina orbis terrârum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rômânum, quis nôn laudat et pulchrôs fluviô fînitimôs agrôs? Altôs mûrôs, longa et dûra bella, clârâs victôriâs quis nôn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrî bonî agricolîs praemia dant magna, et equî agricolârum côpiam frûmentî ad oppida et vîcôs portant. In agrîs populî Rômânî labôrant multî servî. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lâtae. Fînitima Italiae est însula Sicilia. [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.] [Footnote 2: «orbis terrârum», _of the world_.] [Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.] «96.» DIALOGUE MARCUS AND CORNELIUS C. Ubi est, Mârce, fîlius tuus? Estne in pulchrâ terrâ Italiâ? M. Nôn est, Cornêlî, in Italiâ. Ad fluvium Rhênum properat cum côpiîs Rômânîs quia est[4] fâma Novî bellî cum Germânîs. Lîber Germâniae populus Rômânôs Nôn amat. C. Estne fîlius tuus copiârum Rômânârum lêgâtus? M. Lêgâtus nôn est, sed est apud legiônâriôs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scûtum magnum et lôrîcam dûram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae têla portat? M. Gladium et pîlum longum portat. C. Amatne lêgâtus fîlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fîliô meô praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germânôrum? M. Terra Germânôrum, Cornêlî est fînitima Rhênô, fluviô magnô et altô. [Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt», _there are._] [Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.] [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?] [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS] LESSON XIV THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lî», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -î», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -î», m., _food_ «cônsilium, cônsi´lî», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dîligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrî, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crêber, crêbra, crêbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] «97.» Observe the sentences _This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_ In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_. «98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_ NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mî», as «mî fîlî», _O my son_. _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in _Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» _Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iûlia» } Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia. _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to _more than one_, «vester»; as, _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corônae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corônae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae» _c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, «Vir suôs servôs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ («suôs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any one else. _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc. «99.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. 1. Mârcus amîcô Sextô cônsilium suum nûntiat 2. Est côpia frûmentî in agrîs nostrîs. 3. Amîcî meî bonam cênam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lôrîca, mî fîlî, est dûra. 5. Scûta nostra et têla, mî amîce, in castrls Rômânîs sunt. 6. Suntne virî patriae tuae lîberî? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornêlî, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casâ meâ. 9. Pîlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iûlia gallînâs suâs pulchrâs amat et gallînae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est côpia praedae in castrîs vestrîs. 13. Amîcî tuî miserîs et aegrîs cibum et pecûniam saepe dant. II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark's industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant's food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours. [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?] [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.] [Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.] [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT] LESSON XV THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «carrus, -î», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «côpia» «studium, studî», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armâtus, -a, -um», _armed_ «înfîrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mâtûrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma têla´que», _arms and weapons_. «100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences: _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark's feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»: «Mârcus est înfîrmus inopiâ cibî» _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»: «Diâna sagittîs suîs ferâs necat» _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»: «Iûlia est cum Sextô» _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»: «Virî (cum) cônstantiâ magnâ pugnant» «101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_: «102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_ «103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_ N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means. «104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_ «105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_ «106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer? The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore. «107.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rômânî, clârus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrîs suîs, vicîs, oppidîsque magnô studiô virî validî ad arma properant. Iam lêgatî cum legiônariîs ex Italiâ ad Rhênum, fluvium Germâniae altum et lâtum, properant, et servî equîs et carrîs cibum frûmentumque ad castra Rômâna portant. Inopiâ bonôrum têlôrum înfirmî sunt Germânî, sed Rômânî armâti galeîs, lôrîcîs, scûtîs, gladiîs, pîlîsque sunt validî. II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba's cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons. LESSON XVI THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Gen._ -îus -îus -îus _Dat._ -î -î -î Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each: «alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two) «ûnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ «ûllus, -a, -um», _any_ «nûllus, -a, -um», _none, no_ «sôlus, -a, -um», _alone_ «tôtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_ «uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two) «109.» PARADIGMS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ nûllus nûlla nûllum _Gen._ nûllî´us nûllî´us nûllî´us _Dat._ nûllî nûllî nûllî _Acc._ nûllum nûllam nûllum _Abl._ nûllô nûllâ nûllô MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alî´us alî´us alî´us _Dat._ aliî aliî aliî _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Abl._ aliô aliâ aliô THE PLURAL IS REGULAR _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alîus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterîus», the genitive of «alter». _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives». «110.» Learn the following idioms: «alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_ (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any number) «aliî, -ae, -a» ... «aliî, -ae, -a», _some ... others_ EXAMPLES 1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns). 2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud înfîrmum», _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general). 3. «Aliî gladiôs, aliî scûta portant», _some carry swords, others shields._ «111.» EXERCISES I. 1. In utrâ casâ est Iûlia? Iûlia est in neutrâ casâ. 2. Nûllî malô puerô praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliî virî aquam, aliî terram amant. 5. Galba ûnus (_or_ sôlus) cum studiô labôrat. 6. Estne ûllus carrus in agrô meô? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterîus dominî, Tullia alterîus. 8. Lesbia sôla cênam parat. 9. Cêna nûllîus alterîus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nûllî aliî virô cênam dat. NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns. II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain. LESSON XVII THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «agrî cultûra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilîum, domîci´lî», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fêmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -î», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mâtûrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quô, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dêsîderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» «112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives». «113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is «is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_ «114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109. BASE «e-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ is ea id eî eae ea (_or_ iî) _Gen._ eius eius eius eôrum eârum eôrum _Dat._ eî eî eî eîs eîs eîs (_or_ iîs iîs iîs) _Acc._ eum eam id eôs eâs ea _Abl._ eô eâ eô eîs eîs eîs (_or_ iîs iîs iîs) Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»'s are preferred and the two «i»'s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iî» as «î» and «iîs» as «îs». «115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings: SINGULAR _Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_ _Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_; «eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_; «eius», _of it_ or _its_ _Dat._ «eî», _to_ or _for him_; «eî», _to_ or _for her_; «eî», _to_ or _for it_ _Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_ _Abl._ «eô», _with, from_, etc., _him_; «eâ», _with, from_, etc., _her_; «eô», _with, from_, etc., _it_ PLURAL _Nom._ «eî» or «iî», «eae», «ea», _they_ _Gen._ «eôrum», «eârum», «eôrum», _of them, their_ _Dat._ «eîs» or «iîs», «eîs» or «iîs», «eîs» or «iîs», _to_ or _for them_ _Acc._ «eôs, eâs, ea», _them_ _Abl._ «eîs» or «iîs», «eîs» or «iîs», «eîs» or «iîs», _with, from_, etc., _them_ «116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eôrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eârum» to refer to a feminine one. EXAMPLES _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, «Galba suum fîlium vocat» _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another's), «Galba eius fîlium vocat» _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, «Iûlia suôs lîberôs vocat» _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another's), «Iûlia eius lîberôs vocat» _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, «virî suôs puerôs laudant» _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others'), «virî eôrum puerôs laudant» «117.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. 1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans. 4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns. «118.» DIALOGUE[1] CORNELIUS AND MARCUS M. Quis est vir, Cornêlî, cum puerô parvô? Estne Rômânus et lîber? C. Rômânus nôn est, Mârce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvîs Galliae. M. Estne puer fîlius eius servî an alterîus? C. Neutrîus fîlius est puer. Is est fîlius lêgâtî Sextî. M. Quô puer cum eô servô properat? C. Is cum servô properat ad lâtôs Sextî agrôs.[2] Tôtum frûmentum est iam mâtûrum et magnus servôrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrîs labôrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallî et patriae suae agrôs arant? C. Nôn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallî, nôn agrî cultûram. Apud eôs virî pugnant et fêminae auxiliô lîberôrum agrôs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerîs puellîsque grâtâs Gallôrum fâbulâs saepe nârrat et laudat eôs saepe. C. Mala est fortûna eôrum et saepe miserî servî multîs cum lacrimîs patriam suam dêsîderant. [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.] [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.] [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.] * * * * * «Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509» * * * * * LESSON XVIII «CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM» [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS lûdus, -î, m.,_school_ «socius, socî», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «îrâtus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiê, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nûper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past «119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_. «120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE 2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES 3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES «121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_. _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative. «122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ô _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt «123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_ IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-â´-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-â-s, _you were_ er-â´-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-â-nt, _they were_ FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-ô, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_ _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15. [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.] «124.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. S. Ubi es, Mârce? Ubi est Quîntus? Ubi estis, amîcî? M. Cum Quîntô, Sexte, in silvâ sum. Nôn sôlî sumus; sunt in silvâ multî aliî puerî. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nûper nôn laetus erâs. Cûr miser erâs? M. Miser eram quia amîcî meî erant in aliô vicô et eram sôlus. Nunc sum apud sociôs meôs. Nunc laetî sumus et erimus. S. Erâtisne in lûdo hodiê? M. Hodiê nôn erâmus in lûdô, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lûdô? M. Amîcî meî ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nôn erô. S. Cûr nôn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irâtus, inopiam tuam studî dîligentiaeque nôn laudat. M. Nûper aeger eram et nunc înfîrmus sum. «125.» EXERCISE 1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be. 6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys' industry. [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO] LESSON XIX THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMÔ_ AND _MONEÔ_ «126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive. [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.] Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._ DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amâ´re», _to love_ «amâ-» «â» II. «monê´re», _to advise_ «monê-» «ê» III. «re´gere», _to rule_ «rege-» «e» IV. «audî´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «î» _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive. NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem. «127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses. «128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: «a´mô, amâ´re» (_love_) «mo´neô, monê´re» (_advise_) PRES. STEM «amâ-» PRES. STEM «monê-» SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a´mô, _I love_ mo´neô, _I advise_ -ô 2. a´mâs, _you love_ mo´nês, _you advise_ -s 3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t 1. amâ´mus, _we love_ monê´mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. amâ´tis, _you love_ monê´tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt 1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amô» is for «amâ-ô», the two vowels «â-ô» contracting to «ô». In «moneô» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation._ 2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monê-ô» = «mo´neô»), and before final «-t» («amat», «monet») and «-nt» («amant», «monent»). Compare §12.2. «129.» Like «amô» and «moneô» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]: [Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.] INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a´rô, _I plow_ arâ´re, _to plow_ cû´rô, _I care for_ cûrâ´re, _to care for_ *dê´leô, _I destroy_ dêlê´re, _to destroy_ dêsî´derô, _I long for_ dêsîderâ´re, _to long for_ dô,[3] _I give_ da´re, _to give_ *ha´beô, _I have_ habê´re, _to have_ ha´bitô, _I live, I dwell_ habitâ´re, _to live, to dwell_ *iu´beô, _I order_ iubê´re, _to order_ labô´rô, _I labor_ labôrâ´re, _to labor_ lau´dô, _I praise_ laudâ´re, _to praise_ mâtû´rô, _I hasten_ mâtûrâ´re, _to hasten_ *mo´veô, _I move_ movê´re, _to move_ nâr´rô, _I tell_ nârrâ´re, _to tell_ ne´cô, _I kill_ necâ´re, _to kill_ nûn´tiô, _I announce_ nûntiâ´re, _to announce_ pa´rô, _I prepare_ parâ´re, _to prepare_ por´tô, _I carry_ portâ´re, _to carry_ pro´perô, _I hasten_ properâ´re, _to hasten_ pug´nô, _I fight_ pugnâ´re, _to fight_ *vi´deô, _I see_ vidê´re, _to see_ vo´cô, _I call_ vocâ´re, _to call_ [Footnote 3: Observe that in «dô, dare», the «a» is _short_, and that the present stem is «da-» and not «dâ-». The only forms of «dô» that have a long are «dâs» (pres. indic.), «dâ» (pres. imv.), and «dâns» (pres. part.).] «130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitô» covers all three of these expressions. «131.» EXERCISES Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form. I. 1. Vocâmus, properâtis, iubent. 2. Movêtis, laudâs, vidês. 3. Dêlêtis, habêtis, dant. 4. Mâtûrâs, dêsîderat, vidêmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nârrâmus, movês, vident. 7. Labôrâtis, properant, portâs, parant. 8. Dêlet, habêtis, iubêmus, dâs. N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention. II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce. LESSON XX IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMÔ_ AND _MONEÔ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fôrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regîna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trîstîtîa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES «septem», indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_. «133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bâ-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amâ-» «ba-» «m» _loving_ _was_ _I_ The inflection is as follows: CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. amâ´bam, _I was loving_ monê´bam, _I was advising_ -m 2. amâ´bâs, _you were loving_ monê´bâs, _you were advising_ -s 3. amâ´bat, _he was loving_ monê´bat, _he was advising_ -t PLURAL 1. amâbâ´mus, _we were loving_ monêbâ´mus, _we were advising_ -mus 2. amâbâ´tis, _you were loving_ monêbâ´tis, _you were advising_ -tis 3. amâ´bant, _they were loving_ monê´bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt _a._ Note that the «â» of the tense sign «-bâ-» is shortened before «-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.) In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs. «135.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vidêbâmus, dêsîderâbat, mâtûrâbâs. 2. Dabant, vocâbâtis, dêlêbâmus. 3. Pugnant, laudâbâs, movêbâtis. 4. Iubêbant, properâbâtis, portâbâmus. 5. Dabâs, nârrâbant, labôrâbâtis. 6. Vidêbant, movêbâs, nûntiâbâmus. 7. Necâbat, movêbam, habêbat, parâbâtis. II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising. «136.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. Niobê, rêgina Thêbânôrum, erat pulchra fêmina sed superba. Erat superba nôn sôlum fôrmâ[1] suâ marîtîque potentiâ[1] sed etiam magnô lîberôrum numerô.[1] Nam habêbat[2] septem fîliôs et septem fîliâs. Sed ea superbia erat rêgînae[3] causa magnae trîstitiae et lîberîs[3] causa dûrae poenae. NOTE. The words «Niobê», «Thêbânôrum», and «marîtî» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words. [Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See §134.)] [Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.] LESSON XXI FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMÔ_ AND _MONEÔ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS sacrum, -î, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -î», n., _word_ (verb) VERBS sedeô, -êre, _sit_ (sediment) volô, -âre, _fly_ (volatile) ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_ «ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative. «137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amâ-» «bi-» «s» _love_ _will_ _you_ «138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows. CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II SINGULAR 1. amâ´bô, _I shall love_ monê´bô, _I shall advise_ 2. amâ´bis, _you will love_ monê´bis, _you will advise_ 3. amâ´bit, _he will love_ monê´bit, _he will advise_ PLURAL 1. amâ´bimus, _we shall love_ monê´bimus, _we shall advise_ 2. amâ´bitis _you will love_ monê´bitis, _you will advise_ 3. amâ´bunt, _they will love_ monê´bunt, _they will advise_ _a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bô» in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ô». The «-bi-» appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of «erô», the future of «sum». _Pay especial attention to the accent._ In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «139.» EXERCISES I. 1. Movêbitis, laudâbis, arâbô. 2. Dêlêbitis, vocâbitis, dabunt. 3. Mâtûrâbis, dêsîderâbit, vidêbimus. 4. Habêbit, movêbunt, necâbit. 5. Nârrâbimus, monêbis, vidêbunt. 6. Labôrâbitis, cûrâbunt, dabis. 7. Habitâbimus, properâbitis, iubêbunt, parâbit. 8. Nûntiâbô, portâbimus, iubêbô. II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will destroy. «140.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apollô et Diâna erant lîberî Lâtônae. Iîs Thêbânî sacra crêbra parâbant.[1] Oppidânî amâbant Lâtônam et lîberôs eius. Id superbae rêgînae erat molestum. "Cûr," inquit, "Lâtônae et lîberîs sacra parâtis? Duôs lîberôs habet Lâtôna; quattuordecim habeô ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?" Lâtôna iîs verbîs[2] îrâta lîberôs suôs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollô Diânaque et sagittîs[3] suîs miserôs lîberôs rêgînae superbae dêlent. Niobê, nûper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud lîberôs interfectôs et cum perpetuîs lacrimîs[4] eôs dêsîderat. NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollô», «inquit», «duôs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words. [Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so «amâbant» denotes a past situation of affairs. (See §134.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 3: Ablative of means.] [Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.] LESSON XXII REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «disciplîna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gâius, Gâî», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ôrnâmentum, -î», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe´rî, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name VERB «doceô, -êre», _teach_ (doctrine) ADVERB «maximê», _most of all, especially_ ADJECTIVE «antîquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique) «141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129. «142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with _verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with _adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grâtus», _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», _annoying to_, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule: «143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» _The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites._ «144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following: «idôneus, -a, -um», _fit, suitable_ (for) «amîcus, -a, -um», _friendly_ (to) «inimicus, -a, -um», _hostile_ (to) «grâtus, -a, -um», _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to) «molestus, -a, -um», _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to) «fînitimus, -a, -um», _neighboring_ (to) «proximus, -a, -um», _nearest, next_ (to) «145.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rômânî terram idôneam agrî cultûrae habent. 2. Gallî côpiîs Rômânîs inimîcî erant. 3. Cui dea Lâtôna amîca non erat? 4. Dea Lâtôna superbae rêgînae amîca nôn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mârce, erit armâtîs virîs grâtus. 6. Quid erat molestum populîs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallîs erant molesta populîs Italiae. 8. Agrî Germânôrum fluviô Rhênô fînitimî erant. 9. Rômânî ad silvam oppidô proximam castra movêbant. 10. Nôn sôlum fôrma sed etiam superbia rêgînae erat magna. 11. Mox rêgîna pulchra erit aegra trîstitiâ. 12. Cûr erat Niobê, rêgîna Thêbânôrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobê multîs fîliîs et fîliâbus. II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls. [Footnote 1: Why not the dative?] «146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apud antîquâs dominâs, Cornêlia, Âfricânî fîlia, erat[2] maximê clâra. Fîliî eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gâius Gracchus. Iî puerî cum Cornêliâ in oppidô Rômâ, clârô Italiae oppidô, habitâbant. Ibi eôs cûrâbat Cornêlia et ibi magnô cum studiô eôs docêbat. Bona fêmina erat Cornêlia et bonam disciplînam maximê amâbat. NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words. [Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)] LESSON XXIII PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGÔ_ AND _AUDIÔ_ «147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-e», and of the fourth in «-î». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows: CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV «re´gô, re´gere» (_rule_) «au´dio, audî´re» (_hear_) PRES. STEM «rege-» PRES. STEM «audî-» SINGULAR 1. re´gô, _I rule_ au´diô, _I hear_ 2. re´gis, _you rule_ au´dîs, _you hear_ 3. re´git, _he (she, it) rules_ au´dit, _he (she, it) hears_ PLURAL 1. re´gimus, _we rule_ audî´mus, _we hear_ 2. re´gitis, _you rule_ audî´tis, _you hear_ 3. re´gunt, _they rule_ au´diunt, _they hear_ 1. The personal endings are the same as before. 2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «rege-» combines with the «-ô» in the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and becomes «-i-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erô», the future of «sum». 3. In «audiô» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem «audî-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amô» and «moneô». (Cf. §12.2.) Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.) «148.» Like «regô» and «audiô» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs: INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT agô, _I drive_ agere, _to drive_ dîcô, _I say_ dîcere, _to say_ dûcô, _I lead_ dûcere, _to lead_ mittô, _I send_ mittere, _to send_ mûniô, _I fortify_ mûnîre, _to fortify_ reperiô, _I find_ reperîre, _to find_ veniô, _I come_ venîre, _to come_ «149.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis agit? Cûr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dûcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mûniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venîmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dûcitis? Quid dîcunt? 5. Mûnîmus, venîtis, dîcit. 6. Agimus, reperîtis, mûnîs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dîcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus. II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all plur._). «150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) Proximum domicîliô Cornêliae erat pulchrae Campânae domicilium. Campâna erat superba nôn sôlum fôrmâ suâ sed maximê ôrnâmentîs suîs. Ea[1] laudâbat semper. "Habêsne tû ûlla ornâmenta, Cornêlia?" inquit. "Ubi sunt tua ôrnâmenta?" Deinde Cornêlia fîliôs suôs Tiberium et Gâium vocat. "Puerî meî," inquit, "sunt mea ôrnâmenta. Nam bonî lîberî sunt semper bonae fêminae ôrnâmenta maximê clâra." NOTE. The only new words here are «Campâna», «semper», and «tû». [Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.] [Illustration: "PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA"] LESSON XXIV IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGÔ_ AND _AUDIÔ_ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS «151.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. regê´bam, _I was ruling_ audiê´bam, _I was hearing_ 2. regê´bâs, _you were riding_ audiê´bâs, _you were hearing_ 3. regê´bat, _he was ruling_ audiê´bat, _he was hearing_ PLURAL 1. regêbâ´mus, _we were ruling_ audiêbâ´mus, _we were hearing_ 2. regêbâ´tis, _you were ruling_ audiêbâ´tis, _you were hearing_ 3. regê´bant, _they were ruling_ audiê´bant, _they were hearing_ 1. The tense sign is «-bâ-», as in the first two conjugations. 2. Observe that the final «-e-» of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign «-bâ-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monêbam» and «regêbam»). 3. In the fourth conjugation «-ê-» is inserted between the stem and the tense sign «-bâ-» («audi-ê-ba-m»). 4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «152.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agêbat, veniêbat, mittêbat, dûcêbant. 2. Agêbant, mittêbant, dûcêbas, mûniêbant. 3. Mittêbâmus, dûcêbâtis, dîcêbant. 4. Mûniêbâmus, veniêbâtis, dîcêbâs. 5. Mittêbâs, veniêbâmus, reperiêbat. 6. Reperiêbâs, veniêbâs, audiêbâtis. 7. Agêbâmus, reperiêbâtis, mûniêbat. 8. Agêbâtis, dîcêbam, mûniêbam. II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing. and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling. «153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.) «crêdô, crêdere», _believe_ (give belief to) «faveô, favêre», _favor_ (show favor to) «noceô, nocêre», _injure_ (do harm to) «pâreô, pârêre», _obey_ (give obedience to) «persuâdeô, persuâdêre», _persuade_ (offer persuasion to) «resistô, resistere», _resist_ (offer resistance to) «studeô, studêre», _be eager for_ (give attention to) «154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» _The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crêdô», «faveô», «noceô», «pâreô», «persuâdeô», «resistô», «studeô», and others of like meaning._ «155.» EXERCISE 1. Crêdisne verbîs sociôrum? Multî verbîs eôrum nôn crêdunt. 2. Meî fînitimî cônsiliô tuô nôn favêbunt, quod bellô student. 3. Tiberius et Gâius disciplînae dûrae nôn resistêbant et Cornêliae pârêbant. 4. Dea erat inimîca septem fîliâbus rêgînae. 5. Dûra poena et perpetua trîstitia rêgînae nôn persuâdêbunt. 6. Nûper ea resistêbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lâtônae. 7. Mox sagittae volâbunt et lîberîs miserîs nocêbunt. LESSON XXV FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGÔ_ AND _AUDIÔ_ «156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-â-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ê-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-e-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-î-» of the stem is retained.[2] [Footnote 1: The «-â-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ê-» before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)] [Footnote 2: The «-î-» is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)] «157.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. re´gam, _I shall rule_ au´diam, _I shall hear_ 2. re´gês, _you will rule_ au´diês, _you will hear_ 3. re´get, _he will rule_ au´diet, _he will hear_ PLURAL 1. regê´mus, _we shall rule_ audiê´mus, _we shall hear_ 2. regê´tis, _you will rule_ audiê´tis, _you will hear_ 3. re´gent, _they will rule_ au´dient, _they will hear_ 1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular. 2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «158.» EXERCISES I. 1. Dîcet, dûcêtis, mûniêmus. 2. Dîcent, dîcêtis, mittêmus. 3. Mûnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dûcet, mittês, veniet, aget. 5. Mûniet, reperiêtis, agêmus. 6. Mittam, veniêmus, regent. 7. Audiêtis, veniês, reperiês. 8. Reperiet, agam, dûcêmus, mittet. 9. Vidêbitis, sedêbô, vocâbimus. II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send. 6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle. [Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», _who_, is singular in number.] [Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.] LESSON XXVI VERBS IN _-IÔ_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD «159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iô» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare «audiô, audî´re» (_hear_), fourth conjugation «capiô, ca´pere» (_take_), third conjugation «160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiô» are inflected as follows: «capiô, capere», _take_ PRES. STEM «cape-» PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE SINGULAR 1. ca´piô capiê´bam ca´piam 2. ca´pis capiê´bâs ca´piês 3. ca´pit capiê´bat ca´piet PLURAL 1. ca´pimus capiêbâ´mus capiê´mus 2. ca´pitis capiêbâ´tis capiê´tis 3. ca´piunt capiê´bant ca´pient 1. Observe that «capiô» and the other «-iô» verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in succession._ (Cf. capiô, audiô; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.) 2. Like «capiô», inflect «faciô, facere», _make, do_ «fugiô, fugere», _flee_ «iaciô, iacere», _hurl_ «rapiô, rapere», _seize_ «161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular._ CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL I. amâ, _love thou_ amâ´te, _love ye_ II. monê, _advise thou_ monê´te, _advise ye_ III. (_a_) rege, _rule thou_ re´gite, _rule ye_ (_b_) cape, _take thou_ ca´pite, _take ye_ IV. audî, _hear thou_ audî´te, _hear ye_ sum (irregular) es, _be thou_ este, _be ye_ 1. In the third conjugation the final -e- of the stem becomes -i- in the plural. 2. The verbs «dîcô», _say_; «dûcô», _lead_; and «faciô», _make_, have the irregular forms «dîc», «dûc», and «fac» in the singular. 3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of «veniô», «dûcô», «vocô», «doceô», «laudô», «dîcô», «sedeô», «agô», «faciô», «mûniô», «mittô», «rapiô». «162.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciêbat. 2. Dêlê, nûntiâte, fugiunt. 3. Venîte, dîc, faciêtis. 4. Dûcite, iaciam, fugiêbant. 5. Fac, iaciêbâmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedête, reperî, docête. 7. Fugiêmus, iacient, rapiês. 8. Reperient, rapiêbâtis, nocent. 9. Favête, resistê, pârêbitis. 10. Volâ ad multâs terrâs et dâ auxilium. 11. Ego têla mea capiam et multâs ferâs dêlêbô. 12. Quis fâbulae tuae crêdet? 13. Este bonî, puerî, et audîte verba grâta magistrî. II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children. [Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. §99.II.3.)] [Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.] * * * * * «Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512» * * * * * LESSON XXVII THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMÔ_ AND _MONEÔ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «âla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -î», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -î», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ôrâculum, -î, n., _oracle_ VERB «vâstô, -âre», _lay waste, devastate_ ADJECTIVES «commôtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_ ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_ [Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468] «163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an action; as, The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its subject as _receiving_ an action; as, The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter Note the direction of the arrows. «164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -r, _I_ 1. -mur, _we_ 2. -ris, -re, _you_ 2. -minî, _you_ 3. -tur, _he, she, it_ 3. -ntur, _they_ _a._ Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_. «165.» PARADIGMS «amô, amâre» «monêo, monêre» PRES. STEM «amâ-» PRES. STEM «monê-» PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS SINGULAR a´mor, _I am loved_ mo´neor, _I am advised_ -or[1] amâ´ris or amâ´re, monê´ris or monê´re. -ris or -re _you are loved_ _you are advised_ amâ´tur, _he is loved_ monê´tur, _he is advised_ -tur PLURAL amâ´mur, _we are loved_ monê´mur, _we are advised_ -mur amâ´minî, _you are loved_ monê´minî, _you are advised_ -mini aman´tur, _they are loved_ monen´tur, _they are advised_ -ntur [Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is «-or».] IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bâ-») SINGULAR amâ´bar, monê´bar, -r _I was being loved_ _I was being advised_ amâbâ´ris or amâbâ´re, monêbâ´ris or monêbâ´re -ris or -re _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amâbâ´tur, monêbâ´tur, -tur _he was being loved_ _he was being advised_ PLURAL amâbâ´mur, monêbâ´mur, -mur _we were being loved_ _we were being advised_ amâbâ´minî, monêbâ´minî, -minî _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amâban´tur, monêban´tur, -ntur _they were being loved_ _they were being advised_ FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-») SINGULAR amâ´bor, monê´bor, -r _I shall be loved_ _I shall be advised_ amâ´beris, _or_ amâ´bere monê´beris _or_ monê´bere, -ris or -re _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amâ´bitur, monê´bitur, -tur _he will be loved_ _he will be advised_ PLURAL amâ´bimur, monê´bimur, -mur _we shall be loved_ _we shall be advised_ amâbi´minî, monêbi´minî, -minî _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amâbun´tur, monêbun´tur, -ntur _they will be loved_ _they will be advised_ 1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active. 2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the third person plural. 3. Inflect «laudô», «necô», «portô», «moveô», «dêleô», «iubeô», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mâtûrô», _I hasten_; «habitô», _I dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject. «167.» EXERCISES I. 1. Laudâris _or_ laudâre, laudâs, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidêminî, vidêtis. 3. Vocâbat, vocâbâtur, dêlêbitis, dêlêbiminî. 4. Parâbâtur, parâbat, cûrâs, cûrâris _or_ cûrâre. 5. Portâbantur, portâbant, vidêbimur, vidêbimus. 6. Iubêris _or_ iubêre, iubês, laudâbâris _or_ laudâbâre, laudâbâs. 7. Movêberis or movêbere, movêbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dêlentur, dêlent, parâbâmur, parâbâmus. II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved. [Illustration: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT] «168.» PER´SEUS AND ANDROM´EDA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Perseus fîlius erat Iovis,[2] maximî[3] deôrum. Dê eô multâs fabulâs nârrant poêtae. Eî favent deî, eî magica arma et âlâs dant. Eîs têlîs armâtus et âlîs frêtus ad multâs terrâs volâbat et mônstra saeva dêlêbat et miserîs înfîrmîsque auxilium dabat. Aethiopia est terra Âfricae. Eam terram Cêpheus[4] regêbat. Eî[5] Neptûnus, maximus aquârum deus, erat îrâtus et mittit[6] mônstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mônstrum nôn sôlum lâtîs pulchrîsque Aethiopiae agrîs nocêbat sed etiam domicilia agricolârum dêlêbat, et multôs virôs, fêminâs, lîberôsque necâbat. Populus ex agrîs fugiêbat et oppida mûrîs validîs mûniêbat. Tum Cêpheus magnâ trîstitiâ commôtus ad Iovis ôrâculum properat et ita dîcit: "Amîcî meî necantur; agrî meî vâstantur. Audî verba mea, Iuppiter. Dâ miserîs auxilium. Age mônstrum saevum ex patriâ." [Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».] [Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4, «miserîs» and «înfîrmîs» are used substantively.] [Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce´pheus_.] [Footnote 5: «Eî», _at him_, dative with «îrâtus».] [Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.] LESSON XXVIII PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _REGÔ_ AND _AUDIÔ_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «respondeô, -êre», _respond, reply_ «servô, -âre», _save, preserve_ ADJECTIVE «cârus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish) CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first NOUN «vîta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital) «169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regô» and «audiô», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491). _a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones. _b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have «re´geris» or «re´gere», _not_ «re´giris», «re´gire». _c._ Inflect «agô», «dîcô», «dûcô», «mûniô», «reperiô», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «170.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agêbat, agêbâtur, mittêbat, mittêbâtur, dûcêbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mûniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dûcêre, dûcere. 4. Dîcêmur, dîcimus, dîcêmus, dîcimur, mûniêbaminî. 5. Dûcitur, dûciminî, reperîmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agêbâmus, agêbâmur, reperîris, reperiêminî. 7. Mûnîminî, veniêbam, dûcêbar, dîcêtur. 8. Mittiminî, mittitis, mittêris, mitteris, agêbâminî. 9. Dîcitur, dîcit, mûniuntur, reperient, audientur. II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and plur._). «171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Tum ôrâculum ita respondet: "Mala est fortûna tua. Neptûnus, magnus aquârum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimîcus, eâs poenâs mittit. Sed parâ îrâtô deô sacrum idôneum et mônstrum saevum ex patriâ tuâ agêtur. Andromeda fîlia tua est mônstrô grâta. Dâ eam mônstrô. Servâ câram patriam et vîtam populî tuî." Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amâbat Cêpheus maximê. LESSON XXIX PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IÔ_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE [Special Vocabulary] VERB «superô, -âre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable) NOUNS «cûra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -î», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ôrum», etc. «perîculum, -î», n., _danger, peril_ ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_ PREPOSITIONS «dê», with abl., _down from; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_ CONJUNCTION «si», _if_ «172.» Review the active voice of «capiô», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492). _a._ The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior, audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor». _b._ In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciô» and «rapiô». «173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amâre», _to love_. Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms. «174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows: CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE I. «amâ-» amâ´re, amâ´rî, _to love_ _to be loved_ II. «monê-» monê´re, monê´rî, _to advise_ _to be advised_ III. «rege-» re´gere, re´gî, _to rule_ _to be ruled_ «cape-» ca´pere ca´pî, _to take_ _to be taken_ IV. «audî-» audî´re, audîrî, _to hear_ _to be heard_ 1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to the present stem. _a._ The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive. 2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final «-e» to «-î», except in the third conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-î». 3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceô», «sedeô», «volô», «cûrô», «mittô», «dûcô», «mûniô», «reperiô», «iaciô», «rapiô.» «175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows: ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL I. «a´mâ» amâ´te amâ´re, amâ´minî, _be thou loved_ _be ye loved_ II. «mo´nê» monê´te monê´re, monê´minî, _be thou advised_ _be ye advised_ III. «re´ge» re´gite re´gere, regi´minî, _be thou ruled _ _be ye ruled_ «ca´pe» ca´pite ca´pere, capi´minî, _be thou taken_ _be ye taken_ IV. «au´dî» audî´te audî´re, audî´minî, _be thou heard_ _be ye heard_ 1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative. 2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in §174.3. [Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from §161.] [Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like «amâre» may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.] «176.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Tum Perseus âlîs ad terrâs multâs volabit. 2. Mônstrum saevum per aquâs properat et mox agrôs nostrôs vâstâbit. 3. Sî autem Cêpheus ad ôrâculum properâbit, ôrâculum ita respondêbit. 4. Quis têlîs Perseî superâbitur? Multa mônstra têlîs eius superâbuntur. 5. Cum cûrîs magnîs et lacrimîs multîs agricolae ex domiciliîs cârîs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vâstâbantur et multa oppida dêlêbantur. 7. Mônstrum est validum, tamen superâbitur. 8. Crêdêsne semper verbîs ôrâculî? Ego iîs non semper crêdam. 9. Pârêbitne Cêpheus ôrâculô? Verba ôrâculî eî persuâdêbunt. 10. Si nôn fugiêmus, oppidum capiêtur et oppidânî necâbuntur. 11. Vocâte puerôs et nârrâte fâbulam clâram dê mônstrô saevô. II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified. LESSON XXX SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «absum, abesse», irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquô, -âre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineô, -êre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discêdô, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeô, -êre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiô, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeô, -êre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerô, -âre», _wound_ (vulnerable) NOUNS «prôvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vînum, -î», n., _wine_ ADJECTIVE «dêfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_ ADVERB «longê», _far, by far, far away_ [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.] «177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mô a´mor mo´neô mo´neor _Imperf._ amâ´bam amâ´bar monê´bam monê´bar _Fut._ amâ´bo amâ´bor monê´bo monê´bor [Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II IMPERATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mâ amâ´re mo´nê monê´re INFINITIVE _Pres._ amâ´re amâ´rî monê´re monê´rî CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iô» verbs) INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ re´gô re´gor ca´piô ca´pior _Imperf._ regê´bam regê´bar capiê´bam capiê´bar _Fut._ re´gam re´gar ca´piam ca´piar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ re´ge re´gere ca´pe ca´pere INFINITIVE _Pres._ re´gere re´gî ca´pere ca´pî CONJUGATION IV INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ au´diô au´dior _Imperf._ audiê´bam audiê´bar _Fut._ au´diam au´diar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ au´dî audî´re INFINITIVE _Pres._ audî´re audî´rî 1. Give the synopsis of «rapiô», «mûniô», «reperiô», «doceô», «videô», «dîcô», «agô», «laudô», «portô», and vary the person and number. «178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._ This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below. «179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» _The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «â» or «ab», «dê», «ê» or «ex»._ «Agricolae ex agrîs veniunt», _the farmers come from the fields_ _a._ «â» or «ab» denotes _from near_ a place; «ê» or «ex», _out from_ it; and «dê», _down from_ it. This may be represented graphically as follows: _________ | | «â» or «ab» | | «ê» or «ex» /_____________| ___________________\ \ | Place | / |_________| | | «dê» | V «180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._ _a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material thing from another, the preposition «â» or «ab», «ê» or «ex», or «dê» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary. (a) «Perseus terram â mônstrîs lîberat» _Perseus frees the land from monsters_ (literal separation--actual motion is expressed) (b) «Perseus terram trîstitiâ lîberat» _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_ (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed) «181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» _The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «â» or «ab»._ _a._ In this construction the English translation of «â», «ab» is _by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was performed. «Mônstrum â Perseô necâtur», _the monster is being slain by_ (lit. _from_) _Perseus_ _b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be «Perseus monstrum necat», _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the personal agent_, with «â» or «ab». _c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. §100. _b._) _Means is a «thing»; the agent or actor is a «person»_. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «â» or «ab». Compare «Fera sagittâ necâtur», _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_ «Fera â Diânâ necâtur», _the wild beast is killed by Diana_ «Sagittâ», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «â Diânâ», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent. «182.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Viri inopiâ cibî dêfessî ab eô locô discêdent. 2. Gerinânî castrîs Rômânîs adpropinquâbant, tamen lêgâtus côpiâs â proeliô continêbat. 3. Multa Gallôrum oppida ab Rômanîs capientur. 4. Tum Rômânî tôtum populum eôrum oppidôrum gladiîs pîlîsque interficient. 5. Oppidânî Rômânîs resistent, sed defessî longô proelîo fugient. 6. Multî ex Galliâ fugiêbant et in Germânôrum vicîs habitâbant. 7. Miserî nautae vulnerantur ab inimîcîs[2] saevîs et cibô egent. 8. Discêdite et date virîs frûmentum et côpiam vînî. 9. Côpiae nostrae â proeliô continêbantur ab Sextô lêgatô. 10. Id oppidum ab prôvinciâ Rômânâ longê aberat. II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness. [Footnote 2: «inimîcîs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.] LESSON XXXI PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS aurum, -î, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nâvigium, nâvi´gî», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -î», m., _wind_ (ventilate) VERB «nâvigô, -âre», _sail_ (navigate) ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy) ADVERB «anteâ», _before, previously_ PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_ «183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the _principal parts._ The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc. The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive participle._ «184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem». «185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be _found by dropping «-î» from the first person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses: THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT) THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively. «186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -î, _I_ 1. -imus, _we_ 2. -istî, _you_ 2. -istis, _you_ 3. -it, _he, she, it_ 3. -êrunt or -êre, _they_ «187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuî PERFECT STEM fu- PERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL fu´î, _I have been, I was_ fu´imus, _we have been, we were_ fuis´tî, fuis´tis, _you have been, you were_ _you have been, you were_ fu´it, _he has been, he was_ fuê´runt _or_ fuê´re, _they have been, they were_ PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erâ-») fu´eram, _I had been_ fuerâ´mus, _we had been_ fu´erâs, _you had been_ fuerâ´tis, _you had been_ fu´erat, _he had been_ fu´erant, _they had been_ FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-») fu´erô, _I shall have been_ fue´rimus, _we shall have been_ fu´eris, _you will have been_ fue´ritis, _you will have been_ fu´erit, _he will have been_ fu´erint, _they will have been_ 1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. 2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erâ-». 3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erô», the future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-». 4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way. «188.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quînte? T. Ego in meô lûdô fuî et Quîntus in suô lûdô fuit. Bonî puerî fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vîcô hodiê? M. Fuit. Nûper per agrôs proximôs fluviô properâbat. Ibi is et Cornêlius habent nâvigium. T. _Nâvigium_ dîcis? Aliî[1] nârrâ eam fâbulam! M. Vêrô (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum nâvigium! Q. Cuius pecûniâ[2] Sextus et Cornêlius id nâvigium parant? Quis iîs pecûniam dat? M. Amîcî Cornêlî multum habent aurum et puer pecûniâ nôn eget. T. Quô puerî nâvigâbunt? Nâvigâbuntne longê â terrâ? M. Dubia sunt cônsilia eôrum. Sed hodiê, crêdô, sî ventus erit idôneus, ad maximam însulam nâvigâbunt. Iam anteâ ibi fuêrunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerî magnô in perîculô erant. Q. Aqua ventô commôta est inimîca nautîs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nâvigia rapit, agit, dêletque. Iî puerî, sî nôn fuerint maximê attentî, îrâtâ aquâ et validô ventô superâbuntur et ita interficientur. [Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of means.] «189.» EXERCISE 1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4] [Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.] [Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with _we_.] LESSON XXXII THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «animus, -î», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchî», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal) ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plênus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty) PREPOSITION «prô», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_ ADVERB «diû», _for a long time, long_ «190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite». The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense. _a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses: _I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, §134) {used to finish} _I finished my work_ (perfect indefinite) _I have finished my work_ (perfect definite) When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to _describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used? "Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home." «191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows: CONJ. I «amâvî» _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_ CONJ. II «monuî» _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_ CONJ. III «rêxî» _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_ «cêpî» _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_ CONJ. IV «audîvî» _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_ PERFECT STEMS «amâv-» «monu-» «rêx-» «cêp-» «audîv-» SINGULAR 1. amâ´vî mo´nuî rê´xî cê´pî audî´vî 2. amâvis´tî monuis´tî rêxis´tî cêpis´tî audîvis´tî 3. amâ´vit mo´nuit rê´xit cê´pit audî´vit PLURAL 1. amâ´vimus monu´imus rê´ximus cê´pimus audî´vimus 2. amâvis´tis monuis´tis rêxis´tis cêpis´tis audîvis´tis 3. amâvê´runt monuê´runt rêxê´runt cêpê´runt audîvê´runt _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ amâvê´re monuê´re rêxê´re cêpê´re audîvê´re 1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._ 2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vî» to the present stem. Like «amâvî» inflect «parâvî», «vocâvî», «cûrâvî», «laudâvî». 3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it. «192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dô dare dedî _give_ dêleô dêlêre dêlêvî _destroy_ habeô habêre habuî _have_ moveô movêre môvî _move_ pâreô pârêre pâruî _obey_ prohibeô prohibêre prohîbuî _restrain, keep from_ videô vidêre vîdî _see_ dîcô dîcere dîxî _say_ discêdô discêdere discessî _depart_ dûcô dûcere dûxî _lead_ faciô facere fêcî _make, do_ mittô mittere mîsî _send_ mûniô mûnîre mûnîvî _fortify_ veniô venîre vênî _come_ «193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Cêpheus, adversâ fortûnâ maximê commôtus, discessit et multîs cum lacrimîs populô Aethiopiae verba ôrâculî nârrâvit. Fâta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, â tôtô populô dêplôrâbantur, tamen nûllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cêpheus cum plênô trîstitiae animô câram suam fîliam ex oppidî portâ ad aquam dûxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dûra revînxit. Tum amîcî puellae miserae longê discessêrunt et diû mônstrum saevum exspectâvêrunt. Tum forte Perseus, âlîs frêtus, super Aethiopiam volâbat. Vîdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimâs, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dêscendit. Tum Cêpheus eî tôtâs cûrâs nârrâvit et ita dîxit: "Pârêbô verbîs ôrâculî, et prô patriâ fîliam meam dabô; sed sî id mônstrum interficiês et Andromedam servâbis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabô." LESSON XXXIII PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE «194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV «amô» «moneô» «regô» «capiô» «audiô» PERFECT STEMS «amâv-» «monu-» «rêx-» «cêp-» «audîv-» PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-erâ-» SINGULAR I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard 1. amâ´veram monu´eram rê´xeram cê´peram audî´veram 2. amâ´verâs monu´erâs rê´xerâs cê´perâs audî´verâs 3. amâ´verat monu´erat rê´xerat cê´perat audî´verat PLURAL 1. amâverâ´mus monuerâ´mus rêxerâ´mus cêperâ´mus audîverâ´mus 2. amâverâ´tis monuerâ´tis rêxerâ´tis cêperâ´tis audîverâ´tis 3. ama´verant monu´erant rê´xerant cê´perant audî´verant FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-eri-» SINGULAR I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have loved advised ruled taken heard 1. amâ´verô monu´erô rê´xerô cê´perô audî´verô 2. amâ´veris monu´eris rê´xeris cê´peris audî´veris 3. amâ´verit monu´erit rê´xerit cê´perit audî´verit PLURAL 1. amâve´rimus monue´rimus rêxe´rimus cêpe´rimus audîve´rimus 2. amâve´ritis monue´ritis rêxe´ritis cêpe´ritis audîve´ritis 3. amâ´verint monu´erint rê´xerint cê´perint audî´verint 1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here. 2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dô», «portô», «dêleô», «moveô», «habeô», «dîcô», «discêdô», «faciô», «veniô», «mûniô.» «195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem. CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE I. amâv- amâvis´se, _to have loved_ II. monu- monuis´se, _to have advised_ III. (_a_) rêx- rêxis´se, _to have ruled_ (_b_) cêp- cêpis´se, _to have taken_ IV. audîv» audîvis´se, _to have heard_ sum fu- fuis´se, _to have been_ 1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dô», «portô», «dêleô», «moveô», «habeô», «dîcô», «discêdô», «faciô», «veniô», «mûniô». «196.» EXERCISES I. 1. Habuistî, môvêrunt, miserant. 2. Vîdit, dîxeris, dûxisse. 3. Mîsistis, pâruêrunt, discesserâmus. 4. Mûnîvit, dederam, mîserô. 5. Habuerimus, dêlêvî, pâruit, fuisse. 6. Dederâs, mûnîveritis, vênerâtis, mîsisse. 7. Vênerâs, fêcisse, dederâtis, portâveris. 8. Quem verba ôrâculî môverant? Populum verba ôrâculî môverant. 9. Cui Cêpheus verba ôrâculî nârrâverit? Perseô Cêpheus verba ôrâculî nârrâverit. 10. Amîcî ab Andromedâ discesserint. 11. Mônstrum saevum domicilia multa dêlêverat. 12. Ubi mônstrum vîdistis? Id in aquâ vîdimus. 13. Quid mônstrum faciet? Mônstrum Andromedam interficiet. II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing. and plur._), they will have led, to have given. 8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did. [Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?] [Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.] [Footnote 3: What case?] LESSON XXXIV REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE [Special Vocabulary] ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dênique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitô», _suddenly_ VERB «reportô, -âre, -âvî», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report) «197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation: { PRESENT = First of the principal parts TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bô, Conj. I and II INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV { PERFECT = Third of the principal parts { PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erô «198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amô», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS «amô, amâre, amâvî» PRES. STEM «amâ-» { _Pres._ amô INDIC. { _Imperf._ amâbam { _Fut._ amâbô PRES. IMV. amâ PRES. INFIN. amâre PERF. STEM «amâv-» { _Perf._ amâvî INDIC. { _Pluperf._ amâveram { _Fut. perf._ amâverô PERF. INFIN. amâvisse 1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parô», «dô», «laudô», «dêleô», «habeô», «moveô», «pâreô», «videô», «dîcô», «discêdô», «dûcô», «mittô», «capiô», «muniô», «veniô».[1] [Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.] «199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2] PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. IRREGULAR VERBS sum esse fuî _be_ ab´sum abes´se â´fuî _be away_ dô dare dedî _give_ CONJUGATION II contineô continêre continuî _hold in, keep_ doceô docêre docuî _teach_ egeô egêre eguî _need_ faveô favêre fâvî _favor_ iubeô iubêre iussî _order_ noceô nocêre nocuî _injure_ persuâdeô persuâdêre persuâsî _persuade_ respondeô respondêre respondî _reply_ sedeô sedêre sêdî _sit_ studeô studêre studuî _be eager_ CONJUGATION III agô agere êgî _drive_ crêdô crêdere crêdidî _believe_ fugiô fugere fûgî _flee_ iaciô iacere iêcî _hurl_ interficiô interficere interfêcî _kill_ rapiô rapere rapuî _seize_ resis´tô resis´tere re´stitî _resist_ CONJUGATION IV repe´riô reperî´re rep´perî _find_ [Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the perfect is the only new form to be learned.] «200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story. Perseus semper proeliô studêbat[3] et respondit,[3] "Verba tua sunt maximê grâta," et laetus arma sua magica parâvit.[3] Subitô mônstrum vidêtur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amîcî longê absunt et misera puella est sôla. Perseus autem sine morâ super aquam volâvit.[3] Subitô dêscendit[3] et dûrô gladiô saevum mônstrum graviter vulnerâvit.[3] Diû pugnâtur,[4] diû proelium est dubium. Dênique autem Perseus mônstrum interfêcit[3] et victôriam reportâvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vênit[3] et Andromedam lîberâvit[3] et eam ad Cêpheum dûxit.[3] Is, nûper miser, nunc laetus, ita dîxit[3]: "Tuô auxiliô, mî amîce, câra fîlia mea est lîbera; tua est Andromeda." Diû Perseus cum Andromedâ ibi habitâbat[3] et magnopere â tôtô populô amâbâtur.[3] [Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.] [Footnote 4: The verb pugnâtur means, literally, _it is fought_; translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_. The verb pugnô in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.] LESSON XXXV THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE «201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._ 1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full: CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART. I. amô amâ´-re amâ´v-î amâ´t-us This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. II. mo´neô monê´-re mo´nu-î mo´nit-us III. regô re´ge-re rêx-î rêct-us ca´piô ca´pe-re cêp-î capt-us IV. au´diô audî´-re audî´v-î audî´t-us 2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle. «202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb _to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been loved_, _I shall have been loved._ Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as Perfect passive, «amâ´tus sum», _I have been_ or _was loved_ Pluperfect passive, «amâ´tus eram», _I had been loved_ Future perfect passive, «amâ´tus erô», _I shall have been loved_ 1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneô», «regô», «capiô», and «audiô», and give the English meanings. «203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case. «204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb. EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR «Vir laudâtus est», _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Puella laudâta est», _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Cônsilium laudâtum est», _the plan was praised_, or _has been praised_ EXAMPLES IN PLURAL «Virî laudâtî sunt», _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Puellae laudâtae sunt», _the girls were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Cônsilia laudâta sunt», _the plans were praised_, or _have been praised_ 1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amô», «moneô», «regô», «capiô», and «audiô» (§§488-492). «205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amâ´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been loved_; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been advised_. 1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regô», «capiô», «audiô», and give the English meanings. «206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ûrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amô» is amat-û´rus (-a, -um) «esse», _to be about to love_. _a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems: Present, amâre (present stem), _to love_ Perfect, amâvisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_ Future, amâtûrus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_ 1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudô», «moneô», «regô», «capiô», «audiô», with the English meanings. «207.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fâbula Andromedae nârrâta est. 2. Multae fâbulae â magistrô nârrâtae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolâ validô arâtus erat. 4. Agrî ab agricolîs validîs arâtî erant. 5. Aurum â servô perfidô ad domicilium suum portâtum erit. 6. Nostra arma â lêgâtô laudâta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudâvit? 7. Ab ancillâ tuâ ad cênam vocâtae sumus. 8. Andromeda mônstrô nôn data est, quia mônstrum â Perseô necâtum erat. II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard. LESSON XXXVI REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS [Special Vocabulary] «dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frûstrâ», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate) «gerô, gerere, gessî, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupô, occupâre, occupâvî, occupâtus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulô, postulâre, postulâvî, postulâtus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recûsô, recûsâre, recûsâvî, recûsâtus», _refuse_ «stô, stâre, stetî, status», _stand_ «temptô, temptâre, temptâvî, temptâtus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneô, tenêre, tenuî, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious) The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mônstrum audîvêrunt, fûgêrunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_ 2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videô oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_ «ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._ «208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ûrus», which appears in the principal parts instead. IRREGULAR VERBS «sum» «esse» «fuî» «futûrus» _be_ «absum» «abesse» «âfuî» «âfutûrus» _be away_ «dô»[1] «dare» «dedî» «datus» _give_ [Footnote 1: «dô» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.] CONJUGATION I «portô» «portâre» «portâvî» «portâtus» _carry_ So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used. CONJUGATION II «contineô» «continêre» «continuî» «contentus» _hold in, keep_ «dêleô» «dêlêre» «dêlêvî» «dêlêtus» _destroy_ «doceô» «docêre» «docuî» «doctus» _teach_ «egeô» «egêre» «eguî» ---- _lack_ «faveô» «favêre» «fâvî» «fautûrus» _favor_ «iubeô» «iubêre» «iussî» «iussus» _order_ «moveô» «movêre» «môvî» «môtus» _move_ «noceô» «nocêre» «nocuî» «nocitûrus» _injure_ «pâreô» «pârêre» «pâruî» ---- _obey_ «persuâdeô» «persuâdêre» «persuâsî» «persuâsus» _persuade (from)_ «prohibeô» «prohibêre» «prohibuî» «prohibitus» _restrain, keep_ «respondeô» «respondêre» «respondî» «respônsus» _reply_ «sedeô» «sedêre» «sêdî» «-sessus» _sit_ «studeô» «studêre» «studuî» ---- _be eager_ «videô» «vidêre» «vîdî» «vîsus» _see_ CONJUGATION III «agô» «agere» «êgî» «âctus» _drive_ «crêdô» «crêdere» «crêdidî» «crêditus» _believe_ «dîcô» «dîcere» «dîxî» «dictus» _say_ «discêdô» «discêdere» «discessî» «discessus» _depart_ «dûcô» «dûcere» «dûxî» «ductus» _lead_ «faciô»[2] «facere» «fêcî» «factus» _make_ «fugiô» «fugere» «fûgî» «fugitûrus» _flee_ «iaciô» «iacere» «iêcî» «iactus» _hurl_ «interficiô» «interficere» «interfêcî» «interfectus» _kill_ «mittô» «mittere» «mîsî» «missus» _send_ «rapiô» «rapere» «rapuî» «raptus» _seize_ «resistô» «resistere» «restitî» ---- _resist_ CONJUGATION IV «mûniô» «mûnîre» «mûnîvî» «mûnîtus» _fortify_ «reperiô» «reperîre» «rep´perî» «repertus» _find_ «veniô» «venîre» «vênî» «ventus» _come_ [Footnote 2: «faciô» has an irregular passive which will be presented later.] «209.» «Prepositions.» 1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the _ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned. «â» or «ab», _from, by_ «cum», _with_ «dê», _down from, concerning_ «ê» or «ex», _out from, out of_ «prô», _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_ «sine», _without_ 2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the _accusative_ (§52). Of these we have had the following: «ad», _to_; «apud», _among_; «per», _through_ There are many others which you will meet as we proceed. 3. The preposition «in» when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the _accusative_. «210.» «_Yes_-or-_No_ Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer _yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms: 1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.) 3. _He isn´t coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.) These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows: 1. «Venitne?» _is he coming?_ 2. «Nônne venit?» _is he not coming?_ 3. «Num venit?» _he isn´t coming, is he?_ _a._ «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first. _b._ We learned in §56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vêrô», «certê», etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and «nôn», «minimê», etc. for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_. «211.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. I. 1. Nônne habêbat Cornêlia ôrnâmenta aurî? Habêbat. 2. Num Sextus lêgâtus scûtum in dextrô bracchiô gerêbat? Nôn in dextrô, sed sinistrô in bracchiô Sextus scûtum gerêbat. 3. Frûstrâ bella multa ab Gallîs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum â perfidô Sextô occupâtum est, oppidânî miserî gladiô interfectî sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plênum frûmentî. 6. Nônne Sextus ab oppidânîs frûmentum postulâvit? Vêrô, sed iî recûsâvêrunt frûmentum dare. 7. Cûr oppidum ab Sextô dêlêtum est? Quia frûmentum recûsâtum est. 8. Ea victôria nôn dubia erat. 9. Oppidânî erant dêfessî et armîs egêbant. 10. Num fugam temptâvêrunt? Minimê. II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady's gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back. * * * * * «Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516» * * * * * LESSON XXXVII CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH [Special Vocabulary] «neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -î», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotîdiê», adv., _daily_ cessô, cessâre, cessâvî, cessâtus, _cease_, with the infin. «incipiô, incipere, incêpî, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnô, oppugnâre, oppugnâvî, oppugnâtus», _storm, assail_ «petô, petere, petivi» or «petiî, petîtus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pônô, pônere, posuî, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pônere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuî, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetô, vetâre, vetuî, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeô», _command_ «vincô, vincere, vîcî, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vîvô, vîvere, vîxî, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive) «212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.) _a._ «Possum», _I can_, is a compound of «potis», _able_, and «sum», _I am_. «213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The _infinitive_ (cf. §173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English. 1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive. Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virôs fugere iussit», _he commanded the men to flee_. «214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._ «215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_ infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added infinitive. Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», _I am able, I can_; «properô», «mâtûrô», _I hasten_; «temptô», _I attempt_; as «Rômânî Gallôs superâre possunt», _the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_ «Bellum gerere mâtûrant», _they hasten to wage war_ _a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. «Malî puerî esse bonî nôn possunt», _bad boys are not able to_ (or _cannot_) _be good._ Observe that «bonî» agrees with «puerî». «216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as «Superâre est grâtum», _to conquer is pleasing_ «Vidêre est crêdere», _to see is to believe_ _a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as «Galbam superâre inimîcôs est grâtum multîs», _for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_ _b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superâre est grâtum», the predicate adjective «grâtum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superâre» the subject. «217.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Magister lûdî lîberôs cum dîligentiâ labôrâre iussit. 2. Egêre cibô et vinô est virîs molestum. 3. Virî armâtî vetuêrunt Gallôs castra ibi pônere. 4. Estne lêgâtus in castellô an in mûrô? Is est prô portâ. 5. Ubi nostrî[1] fugere incêpêrunt, lêgâtus ab vestrîs[1] captus est. 6. Gallî castellum ibi oppugnâverant ubi praesidium erat înfîrmum. 7. Aliî pugnâre temptâbant, aliî portâs petêbant. 8. Fêminae prô domiciliîs sedêbant neque resistere validîs Gallîs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec înfîrmîs nec miserîs favet. 10. Sed virî arma postulâbant et studêbant Gallôs dê mûrîs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallîs occupârî Rômânîs nôn grâtum erit. 12. Gallî ubi â Rômânîs victî sunt, esse lîberî[2] cessâvêrunt. 13. Diû sine aquâ vîvere nôn potestis. II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town. [Footnote 1: Supply _men_. «nostri», «vestrî», and «suî» are often used as nouns in this way.] [Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used «lîberî» either as an adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to children of slaves.] [Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.] «218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE´IA Sabînî ôlim cum Rômânîs bellum gerêbant et multâs victôriâs reportâverant. Iam agrôs proximôs mûrîs vâstâbant, iam oppidô adpropinquâbant. Rômânî autem in Capitôlium fûgerant et longê perîculô aberant. Mûrîs validîs et saxîs altîs crêdêbant. Frûstrâ Sabînî têla iaciêbant, frûstrâ portâs dûrâs petêbant; castellum occupâre nôn poterant. Deinde novum cônsilium cêpêrunt.[4] Tarpêia erat puella Rômâna pulchra et superba. Cotîdiê aquam côpiîs Rômânîs in Capitôlium portâbat. Eî[5] nôn nocêbant Sabînî, quod ea sine armîs erat neque Sabînî bellum cum fêminîs lîberîsque gerêbant. Tarpêia autem maximê amâbat ôrnâmenta aurî. Cotîdiê Sabînôrum ôrnâmenta vidêbat et mox ea dêsîderâre incipiêbat. Eî ûnus ex[6] Sabînîs dîxit, "Dûc côpiâs Sabînâs intrâ portâs, Tarpêia, et maxima erunt praemia tua." [Footnote 4: «cônsilium capere», _to make a plan_. Why is the _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.] [Footnote 5: Dative with «nocêbant». (Cf. §154.)] [Footnote 6: «ex», _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best translated _of_.] [Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA] LESSON XXXVIII THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN «219.» Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_. _a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the town._ _b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: _The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._ NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement. _c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: _When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._ NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and _when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate. _d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the _subordinate clause._ «220.» Examine the complex sentence _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ Here are two clauses: _a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_ _b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_ The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_. It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun _men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who, whose, whom, which, what, that_. «221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quî», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quî» «quae» «quod» «quî» «quae» «quae» _Gen._ «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quôrum» «quârum» «quôrum» _Dat._ «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» _Acc._ «quem» «quam» «quod» «quôs» «quâs» «quae» _Abl._ «quô» «quâ» «quô» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» 1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quî», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings. NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced _c[oo]i´y[oo]s_ (two syllables) and _c[oo]i_ (one syllable). «222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1] MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ _who, that_ _which, what, that_ _Gen._ _of whom, whose_ _of which, of what, whose_ _Dat._ _to_ or _for whom_ _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_ _Acc._ _whom, that_ _which, what, that_ _Abl._ _from_, etc., _whom_ _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_ [Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.] _a._ We see from the table above that «quî», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_, or _that_. «223.» Note the following sentences: _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ _The Romans killed the woman who was taken_ «Rômânî interfêcêrunt virôs quî captî sunt» «Rômânî interfêcêrunt fêminam quae capta est» In the first sentence _who_ («quî») refers to the antecedent _men_ («virôs»), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ («quae») refers to _woman_ («fêminam»), and _feminine singular_. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and _number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virôs» and «fêminam» are accusatives, and «quî» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence «224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» _A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause._ «225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_ _what?_ In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quî?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective). «226.» Examine the sentences _a._ _Who is the man?_ «Quis est vir?» _b._ _What man is leading them?_ «Quî vir eôs dûcit?» In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the _pronoun_ and «quî», «quae», «quod» is the _adjective_. «227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quî», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.) 2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quî», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows: MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quis», _who?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Gen._ «cuius», _whose?_ «cuius», _whose?_ _Dat._ «cui», _to_ or _for whom?_ «cui», _to_ or _for_ _what_ or _which?_ _Acc._ «quem», _whom?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Abl._ «quô», _from_, etc., _whom?_ «quô», _from_, etc., _which_ or _what?_ NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid. «228.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amô est aeger. 2. Cuius scûtum habês? Scûtum habeô quod lêgâtus ad castellum mîsit. 3. Cui lêgâtus suum scûtum dabit? Fîliô meô scûtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germânî antîquî vîvêbant? In terrâ quae est proxima Rhênô Germânî vîvêbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germânî bellum gerêbant? Cum Rômânîs, qui eôs superâre studêbant, Germânî bellum gerêbant. 6. Quî virî castra pônunt? Iî sunt virî quôrum armîs Germânî victî sunt. 7. Quibus têlîs côpiae nostrae eguêrunt? Gladiîs et telîs nostrae côpiae eguêrunt. 8.  quibus porta sinistra tenêbâtur?  sociîs porta sinistra tenêbâtur. 9. Quae prôvinciae â Rômânîs occupâtae sunt? Multae prôvinciae â Rômânîs occupâtae sunt. 10. Quibus virîs deî favêbunt? Bonîs virîs deî favêbunt. [Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.] [Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI] II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay. «229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2] Tarpêia, commôta ôrnamentîs Sabînôrum pulchrîs, diû resistere nôn potuit et respondit: "Date mihi[3] ôrnâmenta quae in sinistrîs bracchîs geritis, et celeriter côpiâs vestrâs in Capitôlium dûcam." Nec Sabînî recûsâvêrunt, sed per dûrâs magnâsque castellî portâs properâvêrunt quô[1] Tarpêia dûxit et mox intrâ validôs et altôs mûrôs stâbant. Tum sine morâ in[2] Tarpêiam scûta graviter iêcêrunt; nam scûta quoque in sinistrîs bracchiîs gerêbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpêia interfecta est; ita Sabînî Capitôlium occupâvêrunt. [Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.] [Footnote 3: _to me._] [Footnote 1: quô = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_] [Footnote 2: _upon_.] LESSON XXXIX THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarî, -ôrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dûcô» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iûdex, iûdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mîles, mîlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pês, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prînceps, prîncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rêx, rêgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtûs, virtûtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue) [Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.] «230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-â» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portâ-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-». These stem vowels, «-â-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the _Â_- and _O_-Declensions. «231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»_stem_. _In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In_ «i-»_stems the stem is formed by adding_ «-i-» _to the base._ The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one. «232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes: I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular. CLASS I «233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows: «prînceps», «mîles», m., «lapis», m., _chief_ _soldier_ m., _stone_ BASES OR STEMS «prîncip-» «mîlit-» «lapid-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ prînceps mîles lapis -s _Gen._ prîn´cipis mîlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prîn´cipî mîlitî lapidî -î _Acc._ prîn´cipem mîlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prîn´cipe mîlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prîn´cipês mîlitês lapidês -ês _Gen._ prîn´cipum mîlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prînci´pibus mîlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prîn´cipês mîlitês lapidês -ês _Abl._ prînci´pibus mîlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rêx», «iûdex», «virtûs», f., m., _king_ m.,_judge_ _manliness_ BASES OR STEMS «rêg-» «iûdic-» «virtût-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ rêx iûdex virtûs -s _Gen._ rêgis iûdicis virtû´tis -is _Dat._ rêgî iûdicî virtû´tî -î _Acc._ rêgem iûdicem virtû´tem -em _Abl._ rêge iûdice virtû´te -e PLURAL _Nom._ rêgês iûdicês virtû´tês -ês _Gen._ rêgum iûdicum virtû´tum -um _Dat._ rêgibus iûdicibus virtû´tibus -ibus _Acc._ rêgês iûdicês virtû´tês -ês _Abl._ rêgibus iûdicibus virtû´tibus -ibus 1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular. 2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prînceps» («prîncip-»), «mîles» («mîlit-»), «iûdex» («iûdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative. _a._ «lapis» is an exception to this rule. 3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative: _a._ A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mîles» for «mîlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtûs» for «virtûts». _b._ A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus «iûdec» + «s» = «iûdex», «rêg» + «s» = «rêx». 4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., _leader_; «eques, equitis», m., _horseman_; «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_; «pês, pedis», m.,_foot_. «234.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Neque peditês neque equitês occupâre castellum Rômânum poterant. 2. Summâ virtûte mûrôs altôs cotîdiê oppugnâbant. 3. Pedes mîlitum lapidibus quî dê mûrô iaciêbantur saepe vulnerâbantur. 4. Quod novum cônsilium dux cêpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrîs ôrnâmentîs temptâvit. 6. Quid puella fêcit? 7. Puella commôta aurô mîlitês per portâs dûxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summô studiô petîverat nôn reportâvit. 9. Apud Rômânôs antîquôs Tarpêia nôn est laudâta. II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the _Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal. [Illustration: NAVIGIUM] LESSON XL THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_ «captîvus, -î», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cônsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frâter, frâtris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homô, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedîmentum, -î», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedîmenta, -ôrum», _baggage_ «imperâtor, imperâtôris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiô, legiônis», f., _legion_ «mâter, mâtris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ôrdô, ôrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salûs, salûtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorôris», f., _sister_ (sorority) CLASS II «235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. «236.» PARADIGMS MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cônsul», «legiô», f., «ôrdô», «pater», m., m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES OR STEMS «cônsul-» «legiôn-» «ôrdin-» «patr-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ cônsul legiô ôrdô pater -- _Gen._ cônsulis legiônis ôrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cônsulî legiônî ôrdinî patrî -î _Acc._ cônsulem legiônem ôrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cônsule legiône ôrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cônsulês legiônês ôrdinês patrês -ês _Gen._ cônsulum legiônum ôrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cônsulibus legiônibus ôrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cônsulês legiônês ôrdinês patrês -ês _Abl._ cônsulibus legiônibus ôrdinibus patribus -ibus 1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way. 2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ôn- drop -n- and end in -ô in the nominative, as legiô (base or stem legiôn-), ôrdô (base or stem ôrdin-). 3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-). 4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._ «237.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Audîsne tubâs, Mârce? Nôn sôlum tubâs audiô sed etiam ôrdinês militum et carrôs impedîmentôrum plênôs vidêre possum. 2. Quâs legiônês vidêmus? Eae legiônês nûper ex Galliâ vênêrunt. 3. Quid ibi fêcêrunt? Studêbantne pugnâre an sine virtûte erant? 4. Multa proelia fêcêrunt[1] et magnâs victôriâs et multôs captîvôs reportâvêrunt. 5. Quis est imperâtor eârum legiônum? Caesar, summus Rômânôrum imperâtor. 6. Quis est eques quî pulchram corônam gerit? Is eques est frâter meus. Eî corôna â cônsule data est quia summâ virtûte pugnâverat et â barbarîs patriam servâverat. II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now («nûper»). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed. [Footnote 1: «proelium facere» = _to fight a battle._] [Footnote 2: «contineô.» Cf. §180.] [Footnote 3: Abl. iniûriâ.] LESSON XLI THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Concluded_) [Special Vocabulary] «calamitâs, calamitâtis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flûmen, flûminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labôris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ôrâtor, ôrâtôris», m., _orator_ «rîpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrôris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victôris», m., _victor_ «accipiô, accipere, accêpî, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cônfirmô, cônfîrmâre, cônfîrmâvî, cônfîrmâtus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm) «238.» Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows: «flûmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES OR STEMS «flûmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flûmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flûminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flûminî temporî operî capitî -î _Acc._ flûmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flûmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flûmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flûminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flûminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flûmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flûminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus 1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. 2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flûmen, base or stem flûmin-. 3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-. «239.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Barbarî ubi Rômam cêpêrunt, maxima rêgum opera dêlêvêrunt. 2. Rômânî multâs calamitâtês â barbarîs accêpêrunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidânôs, animî dubiî eôrum ab ôrâtôre clarô cônfîrmâti sunt. 4. Rôma est in rîpîs fiûminis magnî. 5. Ubi Caesar imperâtor mîlitês suôs arma capere iussit, iî â proeliô continêrî nôn potuêrunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperâtor reperîrî nôn potuit. 7. Imperâtor sagittâ in capite vulnerâtus erat et stâre nôn poterat. 8. Eum magnô labôre pedes ex proeliô portâvit. 9. Is bracchiîs suîs imperâtôrem tenuit et eum ex perîculîs summîs servâvit. 10. Virtûte suâ bonus mîles ab imperâtôre corônam accêpit. II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, "By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster." 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task. [Illustration: Corona] LESSON XLII REVIEW LESSON «240.» Review the paradigms in §§233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection. TERROR CIMBRICUS[1] Ôlim Cimbrî et Teutonês, populî Germâniae, cum fêminîs lîberîsque Italiae adpropinquâverant et côpiâs Rômânâs maximô proeliô vîcerant. Ubi fuga legiônum nûntiâta est, summus erat terror tôtîus Rômae, et Rômânî, graviter commôtî, sacra crêbra deîs faciêbant et salûtem petêbant. Tum Mânlius ôrâtor animôs populî ita cônfîrmâvit:--"Magnam calamitâtem accêpimus. Oppida nostra â Cimbrîs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrî vâstantur, côpiae barbarôrum Rômae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novîs animîs proelium novum faciêmus et Germânôs ex patriâ nostrâ sine morâ agêmus, erit nûlla salûs fêminîs nostrîs lîberîsque. Servâte lîberôs! Servâte patriam! Anteâ superâtî sumus quia imperâtôrês nostrî fuêrunt înfîrmî. Nunc Marius, clârus imperâtor, quî iam multâs aliâs victôriâs reportâvit, legiônês dûcet et animôs nostrôs terrôre Cimbricô lîberâre mâtûrâbit." Marius tum in Âfricâ bellum gerêbat. Sine morâ ex Âfricâ in Italiam vocâtus est. Côpiâs novâs nôn sôlum tôtî Italiae sed etiam prôvinciîs sociôrum imperâvit.[2] Disciplînâ autem dûrâ labôribusque perpetuîs mîlitês exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quî iam proeliô studêbant, ad Germânôrum castra celeriter properâvit. Diû et âcriter pugnâtum est.[3] Dênique barbarî fûgêrunt et multî in fugâ ab equitibus sunt interfectî. Marius pater patriae vocâtus est. [Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the _terror Cimbricus_ continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.] [Footnote 2: _He made a levy_ (of troops) _upon_, «imperâvit» with the acc. and the dat.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §200. II. 2.] LESSON XLIII THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «animal, animâlis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedês, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcâris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cîvis, cîvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliêns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fînis, fînis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimîcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «însigne, însignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nâvis, nâvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nâvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum». [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending «-ium» is written to mark the i-stems.] [Footnote B: The genitive plural of «mare» is not in use.] «241.» To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an «i»-stem. Nouns with «i»-stems are 1. Masculines and feminines: _a._ Nouns in «-ês» and «-îs» with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus «caedês, caedis», is an «i»-stem, but «mîles, mîlitis», is a consonant stem. _b._ Nouns in «-ns» and «-rs». _c._ Nouns of one syllable in «-s» or «-x» preceded by a consonant. 2. Neuters in «-e», «-al», and «-ar». «242.» The declension of «i»-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences: _a._ Masculines and feminities have «-ium» in the genitive plural and «-îs» or «-ês» in the accusative plural. _b._ Neuters have «-î» in the ablative singular, and an «-i-» in every form of the plural. «243.» «Masculine and Feminine _I_-Stems.» Masculine and feminine «i»-stems are declined as follows: «caedês», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliêns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ caedês hostis urbs cliêns[1] -s, -is, _or_ -ês _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedî hostî urbî clientî -î _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-î) PLURAL _Nom._ caedês hostês urbês clientês -ês _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedîs, -ês hostîs, -ês urbîs, -ês clientîs, -ês -îs, -ês _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus [Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before «-ns» is long, but that it is shortened before «-nt». Cf. §12.2, 3.] 1. «avis», «cîvis», «fînis», «ignis», «nâvis» have the ablative singular in «-î» or «-e». 2. «turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrî» or «turre». «244.» «Neuter _I_-Stems.» Neuter «i»-stems are declined as follows: «însigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «însigni-» «animâli-» «calcâri-» BASES «însign-» «animâl-» «calcâr-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ însigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ însignis animâlis calcâris -is _Dat._ însignî animâlî calcârî -î _Acc._ însigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ însignî animâlî calcârî -î PLURAL _Nom._ însignia animâlia calcâria -ia _Gen._ însignium animâlium calcârium -ium _Dat._ însignibus animâlibus calcâribus -ibus _Acc._ însignia animâlia calcâria -ia _Abl._ însignibus animâlibus calcâribus -ibus 1. Review §74 and see how it applies to this declension. 2. The final «-i-» of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to «-e». 3. A long vowel is shortened before final «-l» or «-r». (Cf. §12.2.) «245.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Quam urbem vidêmus? Urbs quam vidêtis est Rôma. 2. Cîvês Rômânî urbem suam turribus altîs et mûrîs longîs mûnîverant. 3. Ventî nâvîs longâs prohibêbant fînibus hostium adpropinquâre. 4. Imperâtor a clientibus suîs calcâria aurî et alia însignia accêpit. 5. Mîlitês Rômânî cum hostibus bella saeva gessêrunt et eôs caede magnâ superâvêrunt. 6. Alia animâlia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nâvês longae quae auxilium ad imperâtôrem portâbant ignî ab hostibus dêlêtae sunt. 8. In eô marî avis multâs vîdimus quae longê â terrâ volâverant. 9. Nônne vîdistis nâvîs longâs hostium et ignîs quibus urbs nostra vâstâbâtur? Certê, sed nec caedem cîvium nec fugam clientium vîdimus. 10. Avês et alia animâlia, ubi ignem vîdêrunt, salûtem fugâ petere celeriter incêpêrunt. 11. Num. iûdex in peditum ôrdinibus stâbat? Minimê, iûdex erat apud equitês et equus eius însigne pulchrum gerêbat. [Illustration: NAVES LONGAE] II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, "Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain." 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3] [Footnote 2: Place first.] [Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?] LESSON XLIV IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dêns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fôns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mênsis, mênsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mûrus» «môns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus môns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pôns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trâns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vîs (vîs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim) «246.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The original text gives «vî-» and «vîr-» as the "Bases" of «vîs», and omits the "Stems" for both words. The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «vîs», f., _force_ «iter», n., _march_ STEMS «vî-» and «vîri-» «iter-» and «itiner-» BASES «v-» and «vîr-» «iter-» and «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ vîs iter _Gen._ vîs (rare) itineris _Dat._ vî (rare) itinerî _Acc._ vim iter _Abl._ vî itinere PLURAL _Nom._ vîrês itinera _Gen._ vîrium itinerum _Dat._ vîribus itineribus _Acc._ vîrîs, or -ês itinera _Abl._ vîribus itineribus «247.» There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered: 1. «Masculine» are nouns in «-or», «-ôs», «-er», «-es» (gen. «-itis»). _a._ «arbor», _tree_, is feminine; and «iter», _march_, is neuter. 2. «Feminine» are nouns in «-ô», «-is», «-x», and in «-s» preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but «ô». _a._ Masculine are «collis» (_hill_), «lapis», «mênsis» (_month_), «ôrdô», «pês», and nouns in «-nis» and «-guis»--as «ignis», «sanguis» (_blood_)--and the four monosyllables «dêns», _a tooth_; «môns», _a mountain_ «pôns», _a bridge_; «fôns», _a fountain_ 3. «Neuters» are nouns in «-e», «-al», «-ar», «-n», «-ur», «-us», and «caput». [Footnote 1: Review §60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.] «248.» Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined: «animal» «calamitâs» «flûmen» «lapis» «nâvis» «avis» «caput» «ignis» «legiô» «opus» «caedês» «eques» «însigne» «mare» «salûs» «calcar» «fînis» «labor» «mîles» «urbs» «249.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. _The First Bridge over the Rhine._ Salûs sociôrum erat semper câra Rômânîs. Ôlim Gallî, amîcî Rômânôrum, multâs iniûriâs ab Germânîs quî trâns flûmen Rhênum vivêbant accêperant. Ubi lêgâtî ab iîs ad Caesarem imperâtôrem Rômânum vênêrunt et auxilium postulâvêrunt, Rômânî magnîs itineribus ad hostium fînîs properâvêrunt. Mox ad rîpâs magnî flûminis vênêrunt. Imperâtor studêbat côpiâs suâs trâns fluvium dûcere, sed nûllâ viâ[2] poterat. Nûllâs nâvîs habêbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperâtor autem, vir clârus, numquam adversâ fortûnâ commôtus, novum cônsilium cêpit. Iussit suôs[3] in[4] lâtô flûmine facere pontem. Numquam anteâ pôns in Rhênô vîsus erat. Hostês ubi pontem quem Rômânî fêcerant vîdêrunt, summô terrôre commôtî, sine morâ fugam parâre incêpêrunt. II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near («ad») a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies' country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2] [Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 3: «suôs», used as a noun, _his men_.] [Footnote 4: We say _build a bridge over_; the Romans, _make a bridge on_.] [Footnote 5: Place first.] * * * * * «Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§517-520» * * * * * LESSON XLV ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «âcer, âcris, âcre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pâr», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucî, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -î», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vêlôx», gen. «vêlôcis», _swift_ (velocity) «conlocô, conlocâre, conlocâvî, conlocâtus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dêmônstrô, dêmônstrâre, dêmônstrâvî, dêmônstrâtus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandô, mandâre, mandâvî, mandâtus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate) «250.» Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like «bonus», «aeger», or «lîber»), or they are of the third declension. «251.» Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have «i»-_stems_, and they are declined almost like nouns with «i»-stems. «252.» Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, «bonus», m.; «bona», f.; «bonum», n. Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes: I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender. II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different. III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike. «253.» Adjectives of the third declension in «-er» have three endings; those in «-is» have two endings; the others have one ending. CLASS I «254.» Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows: «âcer, âcris, âcre», _keen, eager_ STEM «âcri-» BASE «âcr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ âcer âcris âcre âcrês âcrês âcria _Gen._ âcris âcris âcris âcrium âcrium âcrium _Dat._ âcrî âcrî âcrî âcribus âcribus âcribus _Acc._ âcrem âcrem âcre âcrîs, -ês âcrîs, -ês âcria _Abl._ âcrî âcrî âcrî âcribus âcribus âcribus CLASS II «255.» Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows: «omnis, omne», _every, all_[1] STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnês omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnî omnî omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnîs, -ês omnia _Abl._ omnî omnî omnibus omnibus [Footnote 1: «omnis» is usually translated _every_ in the singular and _all_ in the plural.] CLASS III «256.» Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows: «pâr», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pâr pâr parês paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parî parî paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pâr parîs, -ês paria _Abl._ parî parî paribus paribus 1. All «i»-stem adjectives have «-î» in the ablative singular. 2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. 3. Decline «vir âcer», «legiô âcris», «animal âcre», «ager omnis», «scûtum omne», «proelium pâr». «257.» There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems. «258.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. _The Romans invade the Enemy's Country._ Ôlim peditês Rômânî cum equitibus vêlôcibus in hostium urbem iter faciêbant. Ubi nôn longê âfuêrunt, rapuêrunt agricolam, quî eîs viam brevem et facilem dêmônstrâvit. Iam Rômânî moenia alta, turrîs validâs aliaque opera urbis vidêre poterant. In moenibus stâbant multî prîncipês. Prîncipês ubi vîdêrunt Rômânôs, iussêrunt cîvîs lapidês aliaque têla dê mûrîs iacere. Tum mîlitês fortês continêrî â proeliô nôn poterant et âcer imperâtor signum tubâ darî iussit. Summâ vî omnês mâtûrâvêrunt. Imperâtor Sextô lêgâtô impedîmenta omnia mandâvit. Sextus impedîmenta in summô colle conlocâvit. Grave et âcre erat proelium, sed hostês nôn parês Rômânîs erant. Aliî interfectî, aliî captî sunt. Apud captîvôs erant mâter sororque rêgis. Paucî Rômânôrum ab hostibus vulnerâtî sunt. Secundum proelium Rômânîs erat grâtum. Fortûna fortibus semper favet. II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless. [Illustration: AQUILA LEGIONIS] LESSON XLVI THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «adventus, -ûs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornû, -ûs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «â dextrô cornû», _on the right wing_; «â sinistrô cornû», _on the left wing_ «equitâtus, -ûs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ûs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ûs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ûs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ûs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ûs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem) «cremô, cremâre, cremâvî, cremâtus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceô, exercêre, exercuî, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise) «259.» Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter. «260.» Masculine nouns end in «-us», neuters in «-û». The genitive ends in «-ûs». _a._ Feminine by exception are «domus», _house_; «manus», _hand_; and a few others. PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «adventus», «cornû», m., _arrival_ n., _horn_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornû -us -û _Gen._ adventûs cornûs -ûs -ûs _Dat._ adventuî (û) cornû -uî (û) -û _Acc._ adventum cornû -um -û _Abl._ adventû cornû -û -û PLURAL _Nom._ adventûs cornua -ûs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventûs cornua -ûs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus 1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular. 2. «lacus», _lake_, has the ending «-ubus» in the dative and ablative plural; «portus», _harbor_, has either «-ubus» or «-ibus». 3. «cornû» is the only neuter that is in common use. «261.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vêlôcês hostium equitês âcrem impetum in castra fêcêrunt. 2. Continêre exercitum â proeliô nôn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiônês ex castrîs dûcî. 4. Prô castrîs cum hostium equitâtû pugnâtum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitâtus trâns flûmen fûgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperâtor agrôs vâstâvit et vîcôs hostium cremâvit. 7. Castra autem nôn oppugnâvit quia mîlitês erant dêfessî et locus difficilis. 8. Hostês nôn cessâvêrunt iacere têla, quae paucîs nocuêrunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principês Gallôrum lêgâtôs ad Caesarem mittere studêbant, sed populô persuâdêre nôn poterant. II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (_fem_.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength. LESSON XLVII EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF _DOMUS_ [Special Vocabulary] Athênae, -ârum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -î, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ûs», locative «domî», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genâva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompêii, -ôrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rûs, rûris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rûra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergî», n., _back_; «â tergô», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable) «committô, committere, commîsî, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocô, convocâre, convocâvî, convocâtus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeô, timêre, timuî, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertô, vertere, vertî, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_ «262.» We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following: «Galba ad» (or «in») «oppidum properat» «Galba ab» («dê» or «ex») «oppidô properat» «Galba in oppidô habitat» From these expressions we may deduce the following rules: «263.» RULE. «Accusative of the Place to.» _The «place to which» is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?_ «264.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place from.» _The «place from which» is expressed by «â» or «ab», «dê», «ê» or «ex», with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence?_ (Cf. Rule, §179.) «265.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place at or in.» _The «place at or in which» is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where?_ _a._ The ablative denoting the _place where_ is called the _locative ablative_ (cf. «locus», _place_). «266.» «Exceptions.» Names of towns, small islands,[1] «domus», _home_, «rûs», _country_, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as, «Galba Athênâs properat», _Galba hastens to Athens_ «Galba Athênîs properat», _Galba hastens from Athens_ «Galba Athênîs habitat», _Galba lives at_ (or _in_) _Athens_ «Galba domum properat», _Galba hastens home_ «Galba rûs properat», _Galba hastens to the country_ «Galba domô properat», _Galba hastens from home_ «Galba rûre properat», _Galba hastens from the country_ «Galba rûrî» (less commonly «rûre») «habitat», _Galba lives in the country_ _a._ Names of _countries_, like «Germânia», «Italia», etc., do not come under these exceptions. _With them prepositions must not be omitted._ [Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.] «267.» «The Locative Case.» We saw above that the place-relation expressed by _at_ or _in_ is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the _locative case_. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, «domî», _at home_, and a few other words. «268.» RULE. «Locative and Locative Ablative.» _To express the «place in which» with names of towns and small islands, «if they are singular and of the first or second declension», use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as_, «Galba Rômae habitat», _Galba lives at Rome_ «Galba Corinthî habitat», _Galba lives at Corinth_ «Galba domî habitat», _Galba lives at home_ Here «Rômae», «Corinthî», and «domî» are _locatives_, being _singular_ and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in «Galba Athênîs habitat», _Galba lives at Athens_, «Galba Pompêiîs habitat», _Galba lives at Pompeii_ «Athênîs» and «Pompêiîs» are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives «Athênae» and «Pompêiî» are_plural_ and there is no plural locative case form. «269.» The word «domus», _home, house_, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468). «270.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Corinthî omnia însignia aurî â ducibus victôribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genâvam exercitum magnîs itineribus dûxit. 3. Quem pontem hostês cremâverant? Pontem in Rhênô hostês cremâverant. 4. Pompêiîs multâs Rômânôrum domôs vidêre poteritis. 5. Rômâ cônsul equô vêlôcî rûs properâvit. 6. Domî cônsulis hominês multî sedêbant. 7. Imperâtor iusserat lêgâtum Athênâs cum multîs nâvibus longîs nâvigâre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ôrdinês arborum altârum. 9. Propter arborês altâs nec lacum nec portum reperîre potuimus. 10. Proeliîs crêbrîs Caesar legiônês suâs quae erant in Galliâ exercêbat. 11. Cotîdiê in locô idoneô castra pônêbat et mûniêbat. II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country. [Footnote 2: Latin says "by a swift horse." What construction?] [Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction _because_ («quia» or «quod») and the preposition _because of_ («propter»).] [Footnote 4: _used to sit_, express by the imperfect.] [Illustration: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS] «271.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS Crêta est însula antîqua quae aquâ altâ magnî maris pulsâtur. Ibi ôlim Mînôs erat rêx. Ad eum vênit Daedalus quî ex Graeciâ patriâ fugiêbat. Eum Mînôs rêx benignîs verbîs accêpit et eî domicilium in Crêtâ dedit. [5]Quô in locô Daedalus sine cûrâ vîvebat et rêgî multa et clâra opera faciêbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam câram dêsîderâre incêpit. Domum properâre studêbat, sed rêgî persuâdêre nôn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetâbat. [Footnote 5: _And in this place_; «quô» does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a _connecting relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.] LESSON XLVIII THE FIFTH OR Ê-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME [Special Vocabulary] «aciês, -êî», f., _line of battle_ «aestâs, aestâtis», f., _summer_ «annus, -î», m., _year_ (annual) «diês, diêî», m., _day_ (diary) «fidês, fideî», no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venîre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ûs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hôra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lûx, lûcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prîma lux», _daybreak_ «merîdiês», acc. -em, abl. -ê, no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prîmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rês, reî», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rês gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rês adversae», _adversity_; «rês secundae», _prosperity_ «spês, speî», f., _hope_ «272.» «Gender.» Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except «diês», _day_, and «merîdiês», _midday_, which are usually masculine. «273.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber's Note: The "Stems" are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «diês», «rês», f., m., _day_ _thing_ STEMS «diê-» «rê-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diês rês -ês _Gen._ diêî reî -êî _or_ -eî _Dat._ diêî reî -êî _or_ -eî _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diê rê -ê PLURAL _Nom._ diês rês -ês _Gen._ diêrum rêrum -êrum _Dat._ diêbus rêbus -êbus _Acc._ diês rês -ês _Abl._ diêbus rêbus -êbus 1. The vowel «e» which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending «-eî» after a consonant, as in «r-eî»; and before «-m» in the accusative singular, as in «di-em». (Cf. §12.2.) 2. Only «diês» and «rês» are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. «Aciês», _line of battle_, and «spês», _hope_, have the nominative and accusative plural. «274.» The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions _at, in_, or _on_ may refer not only to place, but also to time, as _at noon, in summer, on the first day_. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the _ablative of time_. «275.» RULE. «The Ablative of Time.» _The time «when» or «within which» anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition._ _a._ Occasionally the preposition «_in_» is found. Compare the English _Next day we started_ and _«On» the next day we started_. «276.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. _Galba the Farmer._ Galba agricola rûrî vîvit. Cotîdiê prîmâ lûce labôrâre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiô suô cessat. Merîdiê Iûlia fîlia eum ad cênam vocat. Nocte pedês dêfessôs domum vertit. Aestâte fîliî agricolae auxilium patrî dant. Hieme agricola eôs in lûdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multâs fâbulâs dê rêbus gestîs Caesaris nârrat. Aestâte fîliî agricolae perpetuîs labôribus exercentur nec grave agrî opus est iîs molestum. Galba sine ûllâ cûrâ vivit nec rês adversâs timet. II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar's line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar's protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast's teeth. «277.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Continued_) Tum Daedalus gravibus cûrîs commôtus fîliô suô Îcarô ita dixit: "Animus meus, Îcare, est plênus trîstitiae nec oculî lacrimîs egent. Discêdere ex Crêtâ, Athênâs properâre, maximê studeô; sed rêx recûsat audîre verba mea et omnem reditûs spem êripit. Sed numquam rêbus adversîs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimîca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam." Tum in artîs ignôtâs animum dîmittit et mîrum capit cônsilium. Nam pennâs in ôrdine pônit et vêrâs âlâs facit. LESSON XLIX PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «amîcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metûs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nûntius, nûntî», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nûntiô» «pâx, pâcis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rêgnum, -î», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli´cî», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sûmere dê», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena» «placeô, placêre, placuî, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sûmô, sûmere, sûmpsî, sûmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineô, sustinêre, sustinuî, sustentus», _sustain_ «278.» We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes: 1. «Personal pronouns», which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, «ego», _I_; «tû», _you_; «is», _he_. (Cf. §279. etc.) 2. «Possessive pronouns», which denote possession; as, «meus», «tuus», «suus», etc. (Cf. §98.) 3. «Reflexive pronouns», used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf. §281.) 4. «Intensive pronouns», used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I myself saw it_. (Cf. §285.) 5. «Demonstrative pronouns», which point out persons or things; as, «is», _this, that_. (Cf. §112.) 6. «Relative pronouns», which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, «quî», _who_. (Cf. §220.) 7. «Interrogative pronouns», which ask a question; as, «quis», _who?_ (Cf. §225.) 8. «Indefinite pronouns», which point out indefinitely; as, _some one, any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf. §296.) «279.» The demonstrative pronoun «is», «ea», «id», as we learned in §115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.). «280.» The personal pronouns of the first person are «ego», _I_; «nôs», _we_; of the second person, «tû», _thou_ or _you_; «vôs», _ye_ or _you_. They are declined as follows: SINGULAR FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON _Nom._ ego, _I_ tû, _you_ _Gen._ meî, _of me_ tuî, _of you_ _Dat._ mihi, _to_ or _for me_ tibi, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ mê, _me_ tê, _you_ _Abl._ mê, _with, from_, etc., _me_ tê, _with, from_, etc., _you_ PLURAL _Nom._ nôs, _we_ vôs, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum or nostrî, _of us_ vestrum or vestrî, _of you_ _Dat._ nôbîs, _to_ or _for us_ vôbîs, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ nôs, _us_ vôs, _you_ _Abl._ nôbîs, _with, from_, vôbîs, _with, from_, etc., _you_ etc., _us_ 1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast. «281.» «The Reflexive Pronouns.» 1. The personal pronouns «ego» and «tû» may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as, «videô mê», _I see myself_ «vidêmus nôs», _we see ourselves_ «vidês tê», _you see yourself_ «vidêtis vôs», _you see yourselves_ 2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (_himself, herself, itself, themselves_) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural. SINGULAR AND PLURAL _Gen._ suî _Acc._ sê _Dat._ sibi _Abl._ sê EXAMPLES «Puer sê videt», _the boy sees himself_ «Puella sê videt», _the girl sees herself_ «Animal sê videt», _the animal sees itself_ «Iî sê vident», _they see themselves_ _a._ The form «sê» is sometimes doubled, «sêsê», for emphasis. 3. Give the Latin for _I teach myself_ _We teach ourselves_ _You teach yourself_ _You teach yourselves_ _He teaches himself_ _They teach themselves_ «282.» The preposition «cum», when used with the ablative of «ego», «tû», or «suî», is appended to the form, as, «mêcum», _with me_; «têcum», _with you_; «nôbîscum», _with us_; etc. «283.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. 1. Mea mâter est câra mihi et tua mâter est câra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grâtae nôbis et nostrae litterae erant grâtae vôbîs. 3. Nûntius rêgis quî nôbîscum est nihil respondêbit. 4. Nûntiî pâcem amîcitiamque sibi et suîs sociîs postulâvêrunt. 5. Sî tû arma sûmês, ego rêgnum occupâbô. 6. Uter vestrum est cîvis Rômânus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eô tempore multî supplicium dedêrunt quia rêgnum petierant. 8. Sûme supplicium, Caesar, dê hostibus patriae âcribus. 9. Prîmâ lûce aliî metû commôtî sêsê fugae mandâvêrunt; aliî autem magnâ virtûte impetum exercitûs nostrî sustinuêrunt. 10. Soror rêgis, ubi dê adversô proeliô audîvit, sêsê Pompêiîs interfêcit. II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way. [Footnote 1: Not accusative.] DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Concluded_) «284.» Puer Îcarus ûnâ[2] stâbat et mîrum patris opus vidêbat. Postquam manus ultima[3] âlîs imposita est, Daedalus eâs temptâvit et similis avî in aurâs volâvit. Tum âlâs umerîs fîlî adligâvit et docuit eum volâre et dîxit, "Tê vetô, mî fîlî, adpropinquâre aut sôlî aut marî. Sî fluctibus adpropinquâveris,[4] aqua âlîs tuîs nocêbit, et sî sôlî adpropinquâveris,[4] ignis eâs cremâbit." Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Âlâs movent et aurae sêsê committunt. Sed stultus puer verbîs patris nôn pâret. Sôlî adpropinquat. Âlae cremantur et Îcarus in mare dêcidit et vitam âmittit. Daedalus autem sine ûllô perîculô trâns fluctûs ad însulam Siciliam volâvit. [Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.] [Footnote 3: «manus ultima», _the finishing touch_. What literally?] [Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.] LESSON L THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN _IPSE_ AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE _ÎDEM_ [Special Vocabulary] «corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dênsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «îdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mîrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ôlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sôl, sôlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vêrus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity) «dêbeô, dêbêre, dêbuî, dêbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «êripiô, êripere, êripuî, êreptus», _snatch from_ «285.» «Ipse» means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is translated by _even_ or _very_. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective. _a._ «Ipse» must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive «suî». The latter is always used as a pronoun, while «ipse» is regularly adjective. Compare «Homô sê videt», _the man sees himself_ (reflexive) «Homô ipse perîculum videt», _the man himself_ (intensive) _sees the danger_ «Homô ipsum perîculum videt», _the man sees the danger itself_ (intensive) «286.» Except for the one form «ipse», the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§108, 109). Learn the declension (§481). «287.» The demonstrative «îdem», meaning _the same_, is a compound of «is». It is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ îdem e´adem idem _Gen._ eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem _Dat._ eî´dem eî´dem eî´dem _Acc._ eun´dem ean´dem idem _Abl._ eô´dem eâ´dem eô´dem PLURAL _Nom._ iî´dem eae´dem e´adem eî´dem _Gen._ eôrun´dem eârun´dem eôrun´dem _Dat._ iîs´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem _Acc._ eôs´dem eâs´dem e´adem _Abl._ iîs´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem _a._ From forms like «eundem» (eum + -dem), «eôrundem» (eôrum + -dem), we learn the rule that «m» before «d» is changed to «n». _b._ The forms «iîdem», «iîsdem» are often spelled and pronounced with one «î». «288.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Ego et tû[1] in eâdem urbe vîvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nôn timêmus sed ferâs saevâs quae in silvâ dênsâ esse dîcuntur. 3. Ôlim nôs ipsî idem iter fêcimus. 4. Eô tempore multâs ferâs vîdimus. 5. Sed nôbîs nôn nocuêrunt. 6. Caesar ipse scûtum dê manibus mîlitis êripuit et in ipsam aciem properâvit. 7. Itaque mîlitês summâ virtûte têla in hostium corpora iêcêrunt. 8. Rômânî quoque gravia vulnera accêpêrunt. 9. Dênique hostês terga vertêrunt et ommîs in partîs[2] fûgêrunt. 10. Eâdem hôrâ litterae Rômam ab imperâtôre ipsô missae sunt. 11. Eôdem mênse captîvî quoque in Italiam missî sunt. 12. Sed multî propter vulnera iter difficile trâns montîs facere recûsâbant et Genâvae esse dîcêbantur. II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story. [Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say _I and you_, not _you and I_.] [Footnote 2: Not _parts_, but _directions_.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §210.] «289.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4] Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rêx Rômânôrum, ubi in exsilium ab îrâtîs Rômânîs êiectus est, â Porsenâ, rêge Etrûscôrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnîs cum côpiîs Rômam vênit, et ipsa urbs summô in perîculô erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rômânus victus erat. Iam rêx montem Iâniculum[5] occupâverat. Numquam anteâ Rômânî tantô metû tenêbantur. Ex agrîs in urbem properabânt et summô studiô urbem ipsam mûniêbant. [Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay's well-known poem "Horatius" in his _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Read the poem in connection with this selection.] [Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.] LESSON LI THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS _HIC_, _ISTE_, _ILLE_ [Special Vocabulary] «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invîsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lîbertâs, -âtis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -î», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nômen, nôminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -î», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prîstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pûblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rês pûblica, reî pûblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestîgium, vestî´gî», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vôx, vôcis», f., _voice_ «290.» We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun «is» and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use «hic», «iste», or «ille». These demonstratives, like «is», are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus: «hic» «iste» «ille» SPEAKER ------------->-------------->---------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote) _a._ In dialogue «hic» refers to a person or thing near the speaker; «iste», to a person or thing near the person addressed; «ille», to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, §293, which should be carefully studied and imitated. «291.» «Hic» is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ hic haec hoc _Gen._ huius huius huius _Dat._ huic huic huic _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc _Abl._ hôc hâc hôc PLURAL _Nom._ hî hae haec _Gen._ hôrum hârum hôrum _Dat._ hîs hîs hîs _Acc._ hôs hâs haec _Abl._ hîs hîs hîs _a._ «Huius» is pronounced _h[oo]´y[oo]s_, and «huic» is pronounced _h[oo]ic_ (one syllable). «292.» The demonstrative pronouns «iste», «ista», «istud», and «ille», «illa», «illud», except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms «istud» and «illud», are declined exactly like «ipse», «ipsa», «ipsum». (See §481.) «293.» «MODEL SENTENCES» _Is this horse_ (of mine) _strong?_ «Estne hic equus valîdus?» _That horse_ (of yours) _is strong, but that one_ (yonder) _is weak_ «Iste equus est validus, sed ille est înfîrmus» _Are these_ (men by me) _your friends?_ «Suntne hî amîcî tuî?» _Those_ (men by you) _are my friends, but those_ (men yonder) _are enemies_ «Istî sunt amîcî meî, sed illî sunt inimîcî» «294.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. _A German Chieftain addresses his Followers._ Ille fortis Germânôrum dux suôs convocâvit et hôc modô animôs eôrum cônfirmâvit. "Vôs, quî in hîs fînibus vîvitis, in hunc locum convocâvî[1] quia mêcum dêbêtis istôs agrôs et istâs domôs ab iniûriîs Rômânôrum liberâre. Hoc nôbîs nôn difficile erit, quod illî hostês hâs silvâs dênsâs, ferâs saevâs quârum vestîgia vident, montês altôs timent. Sî fortês erimus, deî ipsî nôbîs viam salûtis dêmonstrâbunt. Ille sôl, istî oculî calamîtâtês nostrâs vîdêrunt.[1] Itaque nômen illîus reî pûblicae Rômânae nôn sôlum nôbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quî lîbertâtem amant, est invîsum. Ad arma vôs vocô. Exercête istam prîstinam virtûtem et vincêtis." [Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. §190.)] II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For («propter») these deeds («rês») we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment. [Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. §290.)] [Footnote 3: _both ... and_, «et ... et».] [Illustration: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT] «295.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) Altera urbis pars mûrîs, altera flûmine satis mûnîrî vidêbâtur. Sed erat pôns in flûmine quî hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horâtius Cocles, fortis vir, magnâ vôce dîxit, "Rescindite pontem, Rômânî! Brevî tempore Porsena in urbem côpiâs suâs trâdûcet." Iam hostês in ponte erant, sed Horâtius cum duôbus (cf. §479) comitibus ad extrêmam pontis partem properâvit, et hi sôli aciem hostium sustinuêrunt. Tum vêrô cîvês Rômânî pontem â tergô rescindere incipiunt, et hostês frûstrâ Horâtium superâre temptant. LESSON LII THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nê ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nê» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vêrô», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first. «dêcidô, dêcidere, dêcidî, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dêsiliô, dêsilîre, dêsiluî, dêsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneô, manêre, mânsî, mânsûrus», _remain_ «trâdûcô, trâdûcere, trâdûxî, trâductus», _lead across_ «296.» The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to _some person_ or _some thing_, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns «quis» and «quî», which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of «quis» or «quî» and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§221, 227. «297.» Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites: MASC. FEM. NEUT. «quis» «quid», _some one, any one_ (substantive) «quî» «qua» or «quae» «quod», _some, any_ (adjective), §483 «aliquis» «aliquid», _some one, any one_ (substantive), §487 «aliquî» «aliqua» «aliquod», _some, any_ (adjective), §487 «quîdam» «quaedam» «quoddam», «quiddam», _a certain, a certain one_, §485 «quisquam» «quicquam» or «quidquam» (no plural), _any one_ (at all) (substantive), §486 «quisque» «quidque», _each one, every one_ (substantive), §484 «quisque» «quaeque» «quodque», _each, every_ (adjective), §484 [Transcriber's Note: In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the "masculine" column.] NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, _something_, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine. _a._ In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, «quis-»forms and «quid-»forms are mostly used as substantives, «quî-»forms and «quod-»forms as adjectives. _b._ The indefinites «quis» and «quî» never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after «sî», «nisi», «nê», «num» (as, «sî quis», _if any one_; «sî quid», _if anything_; «nisi quis», _unless some one_). Generally «aliquis» and «aliquî» are used instead. _c._ The forms «qua» and «aliqua» are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives «quî» and «aliquî» respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative «quî?» _d._ Observe that «quîdam» (quî + -dam) is declined like «quî», except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural «m» of «quî» becomes «n» (cf. §287.a): «quendam», «quandam», «quôrundam», «quârundam;» also that the neuter has «quiddam» (substantive) and «quoddam» (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. «Quîdam» is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so. _e._ «Quisquam» and «quisque» (substantive) are declined like «quis». _f._ «Quisquam», _any one_ («quicquam» or «quidquam», _anything_), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective _any_ is «ûllus, -a, -um» (§108). «298.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Aliquis dê ponte in flûmen dêcidit sed sine ûllô perîculô servâtus est. 2. Est vêrô in vîtâ cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortûna. 3. Nê mîlitum quidem[1] quisquam in castrîs mânsit. 4. Sî quem meae domî vidês, iubê eum discêdere. 5. Sî quis pontem tenet, nê tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nôn satis mûnîta erat et merîdiê rêx quîdam paene côpiâs suâs trâns pontem trâdûxerat. 7. Dênique mîles quîdam armâtus in fluctûs dêsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rîpam oculôs vertit. 8. Quisque illî fortî mîlitî aliquid dare dêbet. 9. Tanta vêrô virtûs Rômânus semper placuit. 10. Ôlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rômae ipsî; nunc vêrô moenia dêcidêrunt et pauca vestîgia urbis illîus reperîrî possunt. 11. Quisque lîbertâtem amat, et aliquibus vêrô nômen rêgis est invîsum. II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger. [Footnote 1: Observe that «quîdam» and «quidem» are different words.] «299.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mânsit, Horâtius iussit comitês discêdere et sôlus mîrâ cônstantiâ impetum illius tôtius exercitûs sustinêbat. Dênique magnô fragôre pôns in flûmen dêcîdit. Tum vêrô Horâtius tergum vertit et armâtus in aquâs dêsiluit. In eum hostês multa têla iêcêrunt; incolumis autem per fiuctûs ad alteram rîpam trânâvit. Eî propter tantâs rês gestâs populus Rômânus nôn sôlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horâti in locô pûblicô posuit. * * * * * «Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§521-523» * * * * * LESSON LIII REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] «aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audâx», gen. «audâcis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vêlôx» «explôratôr, -ôris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingêns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mêns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportûnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audâcissimî virî, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb «quaerô, quaerere, quaesîvî, quaesîtus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petô» «300.» The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix _-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive _high_, comparative _higher_, superlative _highest_. Less frequently we use the adverbs _more_ and _most_; as, positive _beautiful_, comparative _more beautiful_, superlative _most beautiful._ In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs. «301.» Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE clârus, -a, -um clârior, clârîus clârissimus, -a, -um (_bright_) (_brighter_) (_brightest_) (BASE clâr-) brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um (_short_) (_shorter_) (_shortest_) (BASE brev-) vêlôx vêlôcior, vêlôcius vêlôcissimus, -a, -um (_swift_) (_swifter_) (_swiftest_) (BASE veloc-) _a._ The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding «-ior» masc. and fem., and «-ius» neut.; the superlative by adding «-issimus, -issima, -issimum». «302.» Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs «magis», _more_; «maximê», _most_; as, «idôneus», _suitable_; «magis idôneus», _more suitable_; «maximê idôneus», _most suitable._ «303.» «Declension of the Comparative.» Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ clârior clârîus clârîôrês clâriôra _Gen._ clâriôris clâriôris clâriôrum clâriôrum _Dat._ clâriôrî clâriôrî clâriôribus clâriôribus _Acc._ clâriôrem clârius clâriôrês clâriôra _Abl._ clâriôre clâriôre clâriôribus clâriôribus _a._ Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension. _b._ Compare «longus», _long_; «fortis», _brave_; «recêns» (base, «recent-»), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each. «304.» Adjectives in «-er» form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding «-rimus», «-a», «-um» to the nominative masculine of the positive; as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE âcer, âcris, âcre âcrior, âcrius âcerrimus, -a, -um (BASE acr-) pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um lîber, lîbera, lîberum lîberior, lîberius lîberrimus, -a, -um (BASE lîber-) _a._ In a similar manner compare «miser», «aeger», «crêber». «305.» The comparative is often translated by _quite, too_, or _somewhat_, and the superlative by _very_; as, «altior», _quite_ (_too, somewhat_) _high_; «altissimus», _very high._ «306.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Quid explôrâtôrês quaerêbant? Explôrâtôrês tempus opportfûissimum itinerî quaerêbant. 2. Mediâ in silvâ ignîs quam crêberrimôs fêcimus, quod ferâs tam audâcis numquam anteâ vîderâmus. 3. Antîquîs temporibus Germânî erant fortiôrês quam Gallî. 4. Caesar erat clârior quam inimîcî[1] quî eum necâvêrunt. 5. Quisque scûtum ingêns et pîlum longius gerêbat. 6. Apud barbarôs Germânî erant audâcissimî et fortissimî. 7. Mêns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virî aliquârum terrârum sunt miserrimî. 9. Corpora Germânôrum erant ingentiôra quam Rômânôrum. 10. Âcerrimî Gallôrum prîncipês sine ûllâ morâ trâns flûmen quoddam equôs vêlôcissimôs trâdûxêrunt. 11. Aestâte diês sunt longiôrês quam hieme. 12. Imperâtor quîdam ab explôrâtôribus dê recentî adventû nâvium longârum quaesîvit. II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general's friendship. [Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of «hostês»?] [Footnote 2: Use the superlative of «gravis».] [Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after «quam» is in the same case as the one before it.] N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.) LESSON LIV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT _QUAM_ [Special Vocabulary] «alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritâs, -âtis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clâmor, clâmôris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lênis, lêne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., _woman_ «multitûdô, multitûdinis», f., _multitude_ «nêmo», dat. «nêminî», acc. «nêminem» (gen. «nûllîus», abl. «nûllô», from «nûllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nôbilis, nôbile», _well known, noble_ «noctû», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitô», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiô, cupere, cupîvî, cupîtus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity) «307.» The following six adjectives in «-lis» form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding «-limus» to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, _easy_ facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, _hard_ difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, _like_ similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, _unlike_ dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, _slender_ gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um «308.» From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence _Nothing is brighter than the sun_ «Nihil est clârius quam sôl» But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way, «Nihil est clârius sôle» which, literally translated, is _Nothing is brighter away from the sun_; that is, _starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter_. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative «sôle». Hence the rule «309.» RULE. «Ablative with Comparatives.» _The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative._ «310.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Nêmô mîlitês alacriôrês Rômânîs vîdit. 2. Statim imperâtor iussit nûntiôs quam celerrimôs litterâs Rômam portâre. 3. Multa flûmina sunt lêniôra Rhênô. 4. Apud Rômanôs quis erat clârior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rômâ vîdî. 6. Subitô multitûdo audacissima magnô clamôre proelium âcrius commîsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nôn vêrô tardus, sed celerior aquilâ. 8. Ubi Romae fuî, nêmô erat mihi amicior Sextô. 9. Quaedam mulierês cibum mîlitibus dare cupîvêrunt. 10. Rêx vetuit cîvis ex urbe noctû discêdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hâc muliere. 12. Explôrâtor duâs (_two_) viâs, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliôrem, dêmônstrâvit. II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king's mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory. [Illustration: ARMA ROMANA] LESSON LV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «aedificium, aedifi´cî», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe´rî», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitûs, -ûtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallês, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_ «abdô, abdere, abdidî, abditus», _hide_ «contendô, contendere, contendî, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occîdô, occîdere, occîdî, occîsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necô», «interficiô» «perterreô, perterrêre, perterruî, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiô, recipere, recêpî, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sê recipere», _betake one's self, withdraw, retreat_ «trâdô, trâdere, trâdidî, trâditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor) «311.» Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as _good, better, best_; _many, more, most._ So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «bonus, -a, -um», _good_ «melior, melius» «optimus, -a, -um» «magnus, -a, -um», _great_ «maior, maius» «maximus, -a, -um» «malus, -a, -um», _bad_ «peior, peius» «pessimus, -a, -um» «multus, -a, -um», _much_ «----, plûs» «plûrimus, -a, -um» «multî, -ae, -a», _many_ «plûrês, plûra» «plûrimî, -ae, -a» «parvus, -a, -um», _small_ «minor, minus» «minimus, -a, -um» «312.» The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses. «exterus, -a, -um», («exterior, -ius», { «extrêmus, -a, -um» } _outward_ _outer_) {(«extimus, -a, -um») } _outermost, last_ «înferus, -a, -um», «înferior, -ius», { «înfimus, -a, -um» } _low_ _lower_ { «îmus, -a, -um» } _lowest_ «posterus, -a, -um», («posterior, -ius», { «postrêmus, -a, -um» } _next_ _later_) {(«postumus, -a, -um») } _last_ «superus, -a, -um», «superior, -ius» { «suprêmus, -a, -um» } _above_ _higher_ { «summus, -a, -um» } _highest_ «313.» «Plûs», _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ---- plûs plûrês plûra _Gen._ ---- plûris plûrium plûrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plûribus plûribus _Acc._ ---- plûs plûrîs, -ês plûra _Abl._ ---- plûre plûribus plûribus _a._ In the singular «plûs» is used only as a neuter substantive. «314.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Reliquî hostês, quî â dextrô cornû proelium commîserant, dê superiôre locô fûgêrunt et sêsê in silvam maximam recêpêrunt. 2. In extrêmâ parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plûrimî captîvî ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductî sunt. 4. Caesar vêrô iussit eôs in servitûtem trâdî. 5. Posterô diê magna multitûdô mulierum ab Rômânîs in valle îmâ reperta est. 6. Hae mulierês maximê perterritae adventû Caesaris sêsê occîdere studêbant. 7. Eae quoque plûrîs fâbulâs dê exercitûs Rômânî sceleribus audîverant. 8. Fâma illôrum mîlitum optima nôn erat. 9. In barbarôrum aedificiîs maior côpia frûmentî reperta est. 10. Nêmô crêbrîs proeliîs contendere sine aliquô perîculô potest. II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime. LESSON LVI IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_) ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE [Special Vocabulary] «aditus, -ûs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cîvitâs, cîvitâtis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulô», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_ «incolô, incolere, incoluî, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitô», «vîvô» «relinquô, relinquere, relîquî, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuô, statuere, statuî, statûtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin. «315.» The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses. COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «citerior», _hither_ («citimus», _hithermost_) «interior», _inner_ («intimus», _inmost_) «prior», _former_ «prîmus», _first_ «propior», _nearer_ «proximus», _next, nearest_ «ulterior», _further_ «ultimus», _furthest_ «316.» In the sentence _Galba is a head taller than Sextus_, the phrase _a head taller_ expresses the «measure of difference» in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller than Sextus «by a head»_. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the «ablative of the measure of difference». EXAMPLES «Galba est altior capite quam Sextus» _Galba is a head taller_ (taller by a head) _than Sextus_. «Illud iter ad Italiam est multô brevius» _That route to Italy is much shorter_ (shorter by much) «317.» RULE. «Ablative of the Measure of Difference.» _With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference._ _a._ Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives «eô», _by this, by that_ «nihilô»,[1] _by nothing_ «hôc», _by this_ «paulô», _by a little_ «multô», _by much_ [Footnote 1: «nihil» was originally «nihilum» and declined like «pîlum». There is no plural.] «318.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Barbarî proelium committere statuêrunt eô magis quod Rômânî înfîrmî esse vidêbantur. 2. Meum cônsilium est multô melius quam tuum quia multô facilius est. 3. Haec via est multô lâtior quam illa. 4. Barbarî erant nihilô tardiôrês quam Rômânî. 5. Tuus equus est paulô celerior quam meus. 6. Iî quî paulô fortiôrês erant prohibuêrunt reliquôs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illâs cîvitâtês Germânia mîlitês habet optimôs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dûcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servî, quî agrôs citeriôrês incolêbant, priôrês dominôs relinquere nôn cupîvêrunt, quod eôs amâbant. 10. Ultimae Germâniae partês numquam in fidem Rômânôrum vênêrunt. 11. Nam trâns Rhênum aditus erat multô difficilior exercituî Rômânô. II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar's recent victories. LESSON LVII FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currô, currere, cucurrî, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultâs, -âtis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gêns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negôtium, negôtî», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiô, -ônis», f., _region, district_ «rûmor, rûmôris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fâma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_ «suscipiô, suscipere, suscêpî, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahô, trahere, trâxî, trâctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeô, valêre, valuî, valitûrus», _be strong_; plûrimum valêre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus «319.» Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. _sweet_, adv. _sweetly_). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension. «320.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ cârus, _dear_ cârior cârissimus _Adv._ cârê, _dearly_ cârius cârissimê _Adj._ pulcher, _beautiful_ pulchrior pulcherrimus _Adv._ pulchrê, _beautifully_ pulchrius pulcherrimê _Adj._ lîber, _free_ lîberior lîberrimus _Adv._ lîberê, _freely_ lîberius lîberrimê _a._ The positive of the adverb is formed by adding «-ê» to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way. _b._ The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective. «321.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding «-iter» to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and «-ter» to the base of those of one ending;[1] as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ fortis, _brave_ fortior fortissimus _Adv._ fortiter, _bravely_ fortius fortissimê _Adj._ audâx, _bold_ audâcior audâcissimus _Adv._ audâcter, _boldly_ audâcius audâcissimê [Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.] «322.» «Case Forms as Adverbs.» As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as, _Adj._ facilis, _easy_ prîmus, _first_ _Adv._ facile (acc.), _easily_ prîmum (acc.), _first_ prîmô (abl.), _at first_ _Adj._ multus, _many_ plûrimus, _most_ _Adv._ multum (acc.), _much_ plûrimum (acc.), _most_ multô (abl.), _by much_ «323.» Learn the following irregular comparisons: bene, _well_ melius, _better_ optimê, _best_ diû, _long_ (time) diûtius, _longer_ diûtissimê, _longest_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximê, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimê, _least_ prope, _nearly, near_ propius, _nearer_ proximê, _nearest_ saepe, _often_ saepius, _oftener_ saepissimê, _oftenest_ «324.» Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: «laetus», «superbus», «molestus», «amîcus», «âcer», «brevis», «gravis», «recêns.» «325.» RULE. «Adverbs.» _Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs._ «326.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Nûlla rês melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multô minôre exercitû multô maiôrês côpiâs Germânôrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audâcter in Rômânôrum cohortîs hostês impetûs fêcêrunt 3. Marius autem omnês hôs fortissimê sustinuit. 4. Barbarî nihilô fortiôrês erant quam Rômânî. 5. Prîmô barbarî esse superiôrês vidêbantur, tum Rômânî âcrius contendêrunt. 6. Dênique, ubi iam diûtissimê paene aequô proeliô pugnâtum est, barbarî fugam petiêrunt. 7. Quaedam Germânôrum gentês, simul atque rûmôrem illîus calamitâtis audîvêrunt, sêsê in ultimîs regiônibus fînium suôrum abdidêrunt. 8. Rômânî saepius quam hostês vîcêrunt, quod meliôra arma habêbant. 9. Inter omnîs gentîs Rômânî plûrimum valêbant. 10. Hae cohortês simul atque in aequiôrem regiônem sê recêpêrunt, castra sine ûllâ difficultâte posuêrunt. II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier's death were not true. [Footnote 2: «ille» standing after its noun means _that well-known, that famous_.] LESSON LVIII NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE [Special Vocabulary] «commeâtus, -ûs», m.. _provisions_ «lâtitûdô, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitûdô, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitûdô, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercâtor, mercâtôris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mûnîtiô, -ônis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatî», n., _room, space, distance; time_ «cognôscô, cognôscere, cognôvî, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «côgô, côgere, coêgî, coâctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dêfendô, dêfendere, dêfendî, dêfênsus», _defend_ «incendô, incendere, incendî, incênsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremô» «obtineô, obtinêre, obtinuî, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniô, pervenîre, pervênî, perventus», _come through, arrive_ «327.» The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows: 1. «Cardinal Numerals», answering the question _how many?_ as, «ûnus», _one_; «duo», _two_; etc. 2. «Ordinal Numerals», derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question _in what order?_ as, «prîmus», _first_; «secundus», _second_; etc. 3. «Distributive Numerals», answering the question _how many at a time?_ as, «singulî», _one at a time_. «328.» «The Cardinal Numerals.» The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows: 1, «ûnus» 6, «sex» 11, «ûndecim» 16, «sêdecim» 2, «duo» 7, «septem» 12, «duodecim» 17, «septendecim» 3, «três» 8, «octô» 13, «tredecim» 18, «duodêvîgintî» 4, «quattuor» 9, «novem» 14, «quattuordecim» 19, «ûndêvîgintî» 5, «quînque» 10, «decem» 15, «quîndecim» 20, «vîgintî» _a._ Learn also «centum» = 100, «ducentî» = 200, «mîlle» = 1000. «329.» «Declension of the Cardinals.» Of the cardinals only «ûnus», «duo», «três», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mîlle» used as a noun, are declinable. _a._ «ûnus» is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like «nûllus» (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of «ûnus» is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, «ûna castra», _one camp_; and with other nouns in the sense of _only_, as, «Gallî ûnî», _only the Gauls_. _b._ Learn the declension of «duo», _two_; «três», _three_; and «mîlle», _a thousand_. (§479.) _c._ The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of «bonus»; as, ducentî, -ae, -a ducentôrum, -ârum, -ôrum etc. etc. etc. «330.» We have already become familiar with sentences like the following: «Omnium avium aquila est vêlôcissima» _Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest_ «Hoc ôrâculum erat omnium clârissimum» _This oracle was the most famous of all_ In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a «partitive genitive». «331.» RULE. «Partitive Genitive.» _Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the «partitive genitive»._ _a._ Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting «mîlle» regularly take the ablative with «ex» or «dê» instead of the partitive genitive. _b._ «Mîlle», _a thousand_, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, «mîlle mîlitês», _a thousand soldiers_), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, «decem mîlia mîlitum», _ten thousand soldiers_). EXAMPLES: «Fortissimî hôrum sunt Germânî» _The bravest of these are the Germans_ «Decem mîlia hostium interfecta sunt» _Ten thousand_ (lit. _thousands_) _of the enemy were slain_ «Ûna ex captîvîs erat soror rêgis» _One of the captives was the king's sister_ «332.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiôrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mûnîtiônis aquâ flûminis dêlêta est. 3. Gallî huius regiônis quînque mîlia hominum coêgerant. 4. Duo ex meîs frâtribus eundem rûmôrem audîvêrunt. 5. Quis Rômânôrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quînque cohortês ex illâ legiône castra quam fortissimê dêfendêbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequô spatiô[1] ab castrîs Caesaris et castrîs Germânôrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervênit, plûs commeâtûs ab sociîs postulâvit. 9. Nônne mercâtôrês magnitûdinem însulae cognôverant? Longitûdinem sed nôn lâtitûdinem cognôverant. 10. Paucî hostium obtinêbant collem quem explôrâtôrês nostrî vîdêrunt. II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4] [Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.] [Footnote 2: Not «longius». Why?] [Footnote 3: Latin, _was distant by a small space._] [Footnote 4: Not the accusative.] LESSON LIX NUMERALS (_Continued_) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT [Special Vocabulary] «agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prîmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lî», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvêtiî, -ôrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passûs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mîlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quâ dê causâ», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vâllum, -î», n., _earth-works, rampart_ «cadô, cadere, cecidî, câsûrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dêdô, dêdere, dêdidî, dêditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one's self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premô, premere, pressî, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexô, vexâre, vexâvî, vexâtus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex) «333.» Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like «bonus». «334.» The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of «bonus». The first three are «singulî, -ae, -a», _one each, one by one_ «bînî, -ae, -a», _two each, two by two_ «ternî, -ae, -a», _three each, three by three_ «335.» We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as «per plûrimôs annôs», _for a great many years_; «per tôtum diem», _for a whole day_. Here the space relation is one of _extent of time_. We could also say «per decem pedês», _for ten feet_, where the space relation is one of _extent of space_. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as, «Vir tôtum diem cucurrit», _the man ran for a whole day_ «Caesar mûrum decem pedês môvit», _Cæsar moved the wall ten feet_ «336.» RULE. «Accusative of Extent.» _Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative._ _a._ This accusative answers the questions _how long? how far?_ _b._ Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time _how long_ and the ablative of time _when_, or _within which._ Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following: When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o'clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king's death. «337.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. _Cæsar in Gaul_. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annôs gessit. Prîmô annô Helvêtiôs vîcit, et eôdem annô multae Germanôrum gentês eî sêsê dêdidêrunt. Multôs iam annôs Germânî Gallôs vexabant[1] et ducês Germânî côpiâs suâs trâns Rhênum saepe trâdûcêbant.[1] Nôn singulî veniêbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendêbant. Quâ dê causâ prîncipês Galliae concilium convocâvêrunt atque statuêrunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rûmôrem audîvit, côpiâs suâs sine morâ coêgit. Primâ lûce fortiter cum Germanîs proelium commîsit. Tôtum diem âcriter pugnâtum est. Caesar ipse â dextrô cornû acicm dûxit. Magna pars exercitûs Germânî cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucî multa milia passuum ad flûmen fûgêrunt. II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon («in» _with acc._) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing. [Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.] LESSON LX DEPONENT VERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causâ», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferê», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opîniô, -ônis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rês frûmentâria, reî frûmentâriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ôris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeô» «undique», adv., _from all sides_ «cônor, cônârî, cônâtus sum», _attempt, try_ «êgredior, êgredî, êgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prôgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morârî, morâtus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirî, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficîscor, proficîscî, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertî, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertî» «sequor, sequî, secûtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cônsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «însequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_ «338.» A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, «hortor», _I encourage_; «vereor», _I fear_. Such verbs are called «deponent» because they have laid aside («dê-pônere», _to lay aside_) the active forms. _a._ Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.) «339.» The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as, Conj. I «hortor, hortârî, hortâtus sum», _encourage_ Conj. II «vereor, verêrî, veritus sum», _fear_ Conj. III (_a_) «sequor, sequî, secûtus sum», _follow_ (_b_) «patior, patî, passus sum», _suffer, allow_ Conj. IV «partior, partîrî, partîtus sum», _share, divide_ Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) «Patior» is conjugated like the passive of «capiô» (§492). «340.» PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are «ante», _before_ «apud», _among_ «circum», _around_ «contrâ», _against, contrary to_ «extrâ», _outside of_ «in», _into, in, against, upon_ «inter», _between, among_ «intrâ», _within_ «ob», _on account of_ («quam ob rem», _wherefore, therefore_) «per», _through, by means of_ «post», _after, behind_ «propter», _on account of, because of_ «trâns», _across, over_ _a._ Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209. «341.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. 1. Três ex lêgâtîs, contrâ Caesaris opîniônem, iter facere per hostium fînîs verêbantur. 2. Quis eôs hortâtus est? Imperâtor eôs hortâtus est et iîs persuâdêre cônâtus est, sed nôn potuit. 3. Quid lêgâtôs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quî undique premêbant, aut longitûdô viae eôs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnês ferê Caesarem multô magis quam hostîs veritî sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentês Galliae ex Germânîs oriêbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortês erant? Quia nec vînum nec alia quae virtûtem dêlent ad sê portârî patiêbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercâtôribus dê însulâ Britanniâ quaesîvit, sed nihil cognôscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediâ ferê aestâte cum multîs nâvibus longîs profectus est. 9. Magnâ celeritâte iter confêcit et in opportûnissimô locô êgressus est. 10. Barbarî summîs vîribus eum ab însulâ prohibêre cônâtî sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarôs multa mîlia passuum însecûtus est; tamen sine equitâtû eôs cônsequî nôn potuit. II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march. [Footnote 1: Comparative of «longê».] [Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?] * * * * * «Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§524-526» * * * * * [Illustration] PART III CONSTRUCTIONS INTRODUCTORY NOTE The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, _they must be mastered_. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons. For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar's campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study. LESSON LXI THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD «342.» In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are PRESENT } IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PERFECT } PLUPERFECT } «343.» The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, _each of them may refer to future time_. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used. «344.» The present subjunctive is inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mem mo´neam re´gam ca´piam au´diam 2. a´mês mo´neâs re´gâs ca´piâs au´diâs 3. a´met mo´neat re´gat ca´piat au´diat PLURAL 1. amê´mus moneâ´mus regâ´mus capiâ´mus audiâ´mus 2. amê´tis moneâ´tis regâ´tis capiâ´tis audiâ´tis 3. a´ment mo´neant re´gant ca´piant au´diant PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mer mo´near re´gar ca´piar au´diar 2. amê´ris moneâ´ris regâ´ris capiâ´ris audiâ´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amê´tur moneâ´tur regâ´tur capiâ´tur audiâ´tur PLURAL 1. amê´mur moneâ´mur regâ´mur capiâ´mur audiâ´mur 2. amê´minî moneâ´minî regâ´minî capiâ´minî audiâ´minî 3. amen´tur monean´tur regan´tur capian´tur audian´tur _a._ The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem. _b._ The mood sign of the present subjunctive is «-ê-» in the first conjugation and «-â-» in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. §12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth. _c._ The personal endings are the same as in the indicative. _d._ In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of «cûrô», «iubeô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «mûniô». «345.» The present subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. sim { 1. sîmus SING. { 2. sîs PLURAL { 2. sîtis { 3. sit { 3. sint «346.» «The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.» 1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative. 2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a _desire_ or _wish_, a _purpose_, a _possibility_, an _expectation_, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas. INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS 1. _He is brave_ 1. _May he be brave_ «Fortis est» «Fortis sit» (idea of wishing) 2. _We set out at once_ 2. _Let us set out at once_ «Statim proficîscimur» «Statim proficîscâmur» (idea of willing) 3. _You hear him every day_ 3. _You can hear him every day_ «Cotîdiê eum audîs» «Cotîdiê eum audiâs» (idea of possibility) 4. _He remained until the ship_ 4. _He waited until the ship_ _arrived_ _should arrive_ «Mânsit dum nâvis pervênit» «Exspectâvit dum nâvis pervenîret»[1] (idea of expectation) 5. _Cæsar sends men who find the_ 5. _Cæsar sends men_ _bridge_ _who are to find_ (or _to find_) _the bridge_ «Caesar mittit hominês quî» «Caesar hominês mittit quî» «pontem reperiunt» «pontem reperiant» (idea of purpose) [Footnote 1: «pervenîret», imperfect subjunctive.] NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former. «347.» EXERCISE Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation? There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy's fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor's mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past. LESSON LXII THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE «348.» Observe the sentence «Caesar hominês mittit quî pontem reperiant», _Cæsar sends men to find the bridge_ The verb «reperiant» in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose. «349.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Purpose.» _The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause._ «350.» A clause of purpose is introduced as follows: I. If something is wanted, by «quî», the relative pronoun (as above) «ut», conj., _in order that, that_ «quô» (abl. of «quî», _by which_), _in order that, that_, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative «quô» expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. §317.) II. If something is not wanted, by «nê», conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_ «351.» EXAMPLES 1. «Caesar côpiâs côgit quibus hostîs însequâtur» _Cæsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe_ 2. «Pâcem petunt ut domum revertantur» _They ask for peace in order that they may return home_ 3. «Pontem faciunt quô facilius oppidum capiant» _They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily_ (lit. _by which the more easily_) 4. «Fugiunt nê vulnerentur» _They flee that they may not_ (or _lest they_) _be wounded_ «352.» «Expression of Purpose in English.» In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by _that_ or _in order that_, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as _We eat to live_, _She stoops to conquer_. In Latin prose, on the other hand, «purpose is never expressed by the infinitive». Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error. «353.» EXERCISES I. 1. Veniunt ut { dûcant, mittant, videant, audiant, { dûcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur. 2. Fugimus nê { capiâmur, trâdâmur, videâmus, { necêmur, rapiâmur, resistâmus. 3. Mittit nûntiôs quî { dicant, audiant, veniant, { nârrent, audiantur, in conciliô sedeant. 4. Castra mûniunt { sêsê dêfendant, impetum sustineant, quô facilius { hostîs vincant, salûtem petant. II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (_acc. with_ «in») that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed. [Footnote 1: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 2: Not accusative.] LESSON LXIII INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES «354.» The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive. CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE 1. amâ´rem monê´rem re´gerem ca´perem audî´rem 2. amâ´rês monê´rês re´gerês ca´perês audî´rês 3. amâ´ret monê´ret re´geret ca´peret audî´ret 1. amârê´mus monêrê´mus regerê´mus caperê´mus audîrê´mus 2. amârê´tis monêrê´tis regerê´tis caperê´tis audîrê´tis 3. amâ´rent monê´rent re´gerent ca´perent audî´rent PASSIVE 1. amâ´rer monê´rer re´gerer ca´perer audî´rer 2. amârê´ris monêrê´ris regerê´ris caperê´ris audîrê´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amârê´tur monêrê´tur regerê´tur caperê´tur audîrê´tur 1. amârê´mur monêrê´mur regerê´mur caperê´mur audîrê´mur 2. amârê´minî monêrê´minî regerê´minî caperê´minî audîre´minî 3. amâren´tur monêren´tur regeren´tur caperen´tur audîren´tur _a._ In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of «cûrô», «iubeô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «mûniô». «355.» The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. es´sem { 1. essê´mus SING. { 2. es´sês PLURAL { 2. essê´tis { 3. es´set { 3. es´sent «356.» The three great distinctions of time are _present_, _past_, and _future_. All tenses referring to present or future time are called «primary tenses», and those referring to past time are called «secondary tenses». Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence _He «says» that he «is» coming_, the principal verb, _says_, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and _is coming_, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change _he says_ to _he said_,--in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, _He «said» that he «was» coming_. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called _tense sequence_, from _sequî_, "to follow." In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table: «357.» TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES +-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | _Incomplete or_ | _Completed Action_ | | I | | _Continuing Action_ | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ «358.» RULE. «Sequence of Tenses.» _Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary._ «359.» EXAMPLES I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittit» } «Mittet» } «hominês ut agrôs vâstent» «Mîserit» } { _sends_ } { _that they may_ } _He_ { _will send_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _will have sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittêbat»} «Mîsit» } «hominês ut agrôs vâstârent» «Mîserat» } { _was sending_ } { _that they might_ } _He_ { _sent or has sent_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _had sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } «360.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vênerant ut {dûcerent, mitterent, vidêrent, audîrent, {dûcerentur, mitterentur, vidêrentur, audirentur 2. Fugiêbat nê {caperêtur, trâderêtur, vidêrêtur, {necârêtur, raperêtur, resisteret. 3. Misit nûntiôs quî {dîcerent, audîrent, venîrent {nârrârent, audîrentur, in conciliô sedêrent. 4. Castra mûnîvêrunt {sêsê dêfenderent, impetum sustinêrent, quô facilius {hostîs vincerent, salûtem peterent. II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory. LESSON LXIV THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE «361.» The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amâ´verim monu´erim rê´xerim cê´perim audî´verim 2. amâ´veris monu´eris rê´xeris cê´peris audî´veris 3. amâ´verit monu´erit rê´xerit cê´perit audî´verit PLURAL 1. amâve´rimus monue´rimus rêxe´rimus cêpe´rimus audîve´rimus 2. amâve´ritis monue´ritis rêxe´ritis cêpe´ritis audîve´ritis 3. amâ´verint monu´erint rê´xerint cê´perint audî´verint PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amâvis´sem monuis´sem rêxis´sem cêpis´sem audîvis´sem 2. amâvis´sês monuis´sês rêxis´sês cêpis´sês audîvis´sêm 3. amâvis´set monuis´set rêxis´set cêpis´set audîvis´set PLURAL 1. amâvissê´mus monuissê´mus rêxissê´mus cêpissê´mus audîvissê´mus 2. amâvissê´tis monuissê´tis rêxissê´tis cêpissê´tis audîvissê´tis 3. amâvis´sent monuis´sent rêxis´sent cêpis´sent audîvis´sent _a._ Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem. _b._ Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in «-m» and not in «-ô». _c._ Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding «-issem, -issês», etc. to the perfect stem. _d._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of «cûrô», «iubeô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «mûniô». «362.» The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «sim», the present subjunctive of «sum». CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amâ´tus sim mo´nitus sim rêc´tus sim cap´tus sim audî´tus sim 2. amâ´tus sîs mo´nitus sîs rêc´tus sîs cap´tus sîs audî´tus sîs 3. amâ´tus sit mo´nitus sit rêc´tus sit cap´tus sit audî´tus sit PLURAL 1. amâ´tî sîmus mo´nitî s. rêc´tî s. cap´tî s. audî´tî s. 2. amâ´tî sîtis mo´nitî s. rêc´tî s. cap´tî s. audî´tî s. 3. amâ´tî sint mo´nitî sint rêc´tî sint cap´tî sint audî´tî sint «363.» The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «essem», the imperfect subjunctive of «sum». CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amâtus essem monitus essem rêctus essem captus e. audîtus e. 2. amâtus essês monitus essês rêctus essês captus e. audîtus e. 3. amâtus esset monitus esset rêctus esset captus e. audîtus e. PLURAL 1. amâtî essêmus monitî essêmus rêctî essêmus captî e. audîtî e. 2. amâtî essêtis monitî essêtis rêctî essêtis captî e. audîtî e. 3. amâtî essent monitî essent rêctî essent captî e. audîtî e. _a._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of «cûrô», «iubeô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «mûniô.» «364.» The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» are inflected as follows: PERFECT PLUPERFECT fu´erim fue´rimus fuis´sem fuissê´mus fu´eris fue´ritis fuis´sês fuissê´tis fu´erit fu´erint fuis´set fuis´sent «365.» A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as, _That the men are afraid_ is clear enough (clause as subject) He ordered _them to call on him_ (clause as object) We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. §213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the _subjunctive_ in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages. «366.» RULE. «Substantive Clauses of Purpose.» _A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of «commanding», «urging», «asking», «persuading», or «advising», where in English we should usually have the infinitive._ EXAMPLES 1. _The general ordered the soldiers to run_ «Imperâtor mîlitibus imperâvit ut currerent» 2. _He urged them to resist bravely_ «Hortâtus est ut fortiter resisterent» 3. _He asked them to give the children food_ «Petîvit ut lîberîs cibum darent» 4. _He will persuade us not to set out_ «Nôbîs persuâdêbit nê proficîscâmur» 5. _He advises us to remain at home_ «Monet ut domî maneâmus» _a._ The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. §348.) «367.» The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones. «hortor», _urge_ «imperô», _order_ (with the _dative_ of the _person_ ordered and a _subjunctive clause_ of the _thing_ ordered done) «moneô», _advise_ «petô», «quaerô», «rogô», _ask, seek_ «persuâdeô», _persuade_ (with the same construction as imperô) «postulô», _demand, require_ «suâdeô», _advise_ (cf. «persuâdeô») N.B. Remember that «iubeô», _order_, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. §213.1.) Compare the sentences «Iubeô eum venîre», _I order him to come_ «Imperô eî ut veniat», _I give orders to him that he is to come_ We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeô and imperô in the Latin requires the _infinitive_ in the one case and the _subjunctive_ in the other. «368.» EXERCISES I. 1. Petit atque hortâtur ut ipse dîcat. 2. Caesar Helvêtiîs imperrâvit nê per prôvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nôn iussit Helvêtiôs per prôvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cîvibus persuâsit ut dê fînibus suîs discêderent. 5. Caesar prîncipês monêbit nê proelium committant. 6. Postulâvit nê cum Helvêtiîs aut cum eôrum sociîs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iîs quaesîvî nê proficîscerentur. 8. Iîs persuâdêre nôn potuî ut domî manêrent. II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (_Write this sentence both with_ «imperô» _and with_ «iubeô».) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything («omnia»). NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review §352. [Illustration: LEGIO ITER FACIT] LESSON LXV THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF _POSSUM_ · VERBS OF FEARING «369.» Learn the subjunctive of «possum» (§495), and note especially the position of the accent. «370.» «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also _clauses after verbs of fearing_, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by «ut». If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, «nê» is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate «ut» after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and «nê» by _that_ or _lest_. «371.» EXAMPLES «timeô» } { «veniat» «timêbô» } «ut» { «timuerô» } { «vênerit» _I fear_, _shall fear_, _shall have feared_, _that he will not come_, _has not come_ «timêbam» } { «venîret» «timuî» } «ut» { «timueram» } { «vênisset» _I was fearing_, _feared_, _had feared_, _that he would not come_, _had not come_ The same examples with «nê» instead of «ut» would be translated _I fear that_ or _lest he will come_, _has come_, etc. «372.» RULE. «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» _Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» («that not») or «nê» («that» or «lest»)._ «373.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar verêbâtur ut supplicium captîvôrum Gallîs placêret. 2. Rômânî ipsî magnopere verêbantur nê Helvêtiî iter per prôvinciam facerent. 3. Timêbant ut satis reî frûmentâriae mittî posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinêre possim. 5. Timuit nê impedîmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nê legiônês vincerentur. 7. Legiônês pugnâre nôn timuêrunt.[1] II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp. [Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid _to do_ (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid _will take place_ or _has taken place_ (substantive clause with the subjunctive).] LESSON LXVI THE PARTICIPLES «374.» The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1] [Transcriber's Note: For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a reduced version without translation, and then the complete text, including translations, split into two elements.] CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT amâns monêns regêns capiêns audiêns FUTURE amâtûrus monitûrus rêctûrus captûrus audîtûrus PASSIVE PERFECT amâtus monitus rêctus captus audîtus FUTURE[2] amandus monendus regendus capiendus audiendus CONJ. I CONJ. II ACTIVE PRESENT amâns monêns _loving_ _advising_ FUTURE amâtûrus monitûrus _about to love_ _about to advise_ PASSIVE PERFECT amâtus monitus _loved, having_ _advised, having been advised_ _been loved_ FUTURE[2] amandus monendus _to be loved_ _to be advised_ CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT regêns capiêns audiêns _ruling_ _taking_ _hearing_ FUTURE rêctûrus captûrus audîtûrus _about to rule_ _about to take_ _about to hear_ PASSIVE PERFECT rêctus captus audîtus _ruled, having_ _taken, having_ _heard, havinh_ _been ruled_ _been taken_ _been heard_ FUTURE[2] regendus capiendus audiendus _to be ruled_ _to be taken_ _to be heard_ [Footnote 1: Review §203.] [Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the _gerundive_.] _a._ The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem. _b._ The present active participle is formed by adding «-ns» to the present stem. In «-iô» verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of «-ê-», as «capi-ê-ns», «audi-ê-ns». It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. §256.) «amâns», _loving_ BASE «amant-» STEM «amanti-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amâns amâns amantês amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantî amantî amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amâns amantîs amantia _or_ -ês _Abl._ amantî amantî amantibus amantibus _or_ -e _or_ -e (1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in «-î»; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in «-e». (2) In a similar way decline «monêns», «regêns», «capiêns», «audiêns». _c._ The future active participle is formed by adding «-ûrus» to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with «esse» to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. §206.) _d._ For the perfect passive participle see §201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding «-ndus» to the present stem. _e._ All participles in «-us» are declined like «bonus». _f._ Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives. _g._ Give all the participles of the following verbs: «cûrô», «iubeô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «mûniô». «375.» «Participles of Deponent Verbs.» Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as, _Pres. Act._ «hortâns», _urging_ _Fut. Act._ «hortâtûrus», _about to urge_ _Perf. Pass._ (in form) «hortâtus», _having urged_ _Fut. Pass._ (_Gerundive_) «hortandus», _to be urged_ _a._ Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but _active_ in meaning. _No other verbs have a perfect active participle._ On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs. _b._ Give the participles of «cônor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». «376.» «Tenses of the Participle.» The tenses express time as follows: 1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, «mîlitês însequentês cêpêrunt multôs», _the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together. 2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary _having been_; as, «audîtus», _heard_ or _having been heard_. 3. The future active participle, translated _about to_, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb. «377.» Review §§203, 204, and, note the following model sentences: 1. «Mîlitês currentês erant dêfessî», _the soldiers who were running_ (lit. _running_) _were weary_. 2. «Caesar profectûrus Rômam nôn exspectâvit», _Cæsar, when about to set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_. 3. «Oppidum captum vîdimus», _we saw the town which had been captured_ (lit. _captured town_). 4. «Imperâtor trîduum morâtus profectus est», _the general, since_ (_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having delayed_) _three days, set out_. 5. «Mîlitês vîctî terga nôn vertêrunt», _the soldiers, though they were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_. In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (_when, since, after, though_, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally. «378.» EXERCISES I. 1. Puer timêns nê capiâtur fugit. 2. Aquila îrâ commôta avîs reliquâs interficere cônâta erat. 3. Mîlitês ab hostibus pressî têla iacere nôn potuêrunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiônem laudâtûrus ad prîmum agmen prôgressus est. 5. Imperâtor hortâtus equitês ut fortiter pugnârent signum proeliô dedit. 6. Mîlitês hostîs octô milia passuum însecûtî multîs cum captîvîs ad castra revertêrunt. 7. Sôl oriêns multôs interfectôs vîdit. 8. Rômânî cônsilium audâx suspicâtî barbaris sêsê nôn commîsêrunt. 9. Nâvis ê portû êgressa nûllô in perîculô erat. II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy's country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we. [Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate clauses.] LESSON LXVII THE IRREGULAR VERBS _VOLÔ_, _NÔLÔ_, _MÂLÔ_ THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE «379.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of «volô», _wish_; «nôlô» («ne» + «volô»), _be unwilling_; «mâlô» («magis» + «volô»), _be more willing, prefer_ (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.) _a._ These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, «volunt venîre», _they wish to come_; «volunt amîcôs venîre», _they wish their friends to come_. The English usage is the same.[1] [Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See §366.)] [ Conjugations given in §497: PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volô, velle, voluî», ----, _be willing, will, wish_ «nôlô, nôlle, nôluî», ----, _be unwilling, will not_ «mâlô, mâlle, mâluî», ----, _be more willing, prefer_ INDICATIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ volô nôlô mâlô vîs nôn vis mâvîs vult nôn vult mâvult PLURAL volumus nôlumus mâlumus vultis nôn vultis mâvul´tis volunt nôlunt mâlunt _Impf._ volêbam nôlêbam mâlêbam _Fut._ volam, volês, etc. nôlam, nôlês, etc. mâlam, mâlês, etc. _Perf._ voluî nôluî mâluî _Plup._ volueram nôlueram mâlueram _F. P._ voluerô nôluerô mâluerô SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ velim nôlim mâlim velîs nôlîs mâlîs velit nôlit mâlit PLURAL velî´mus nôlî´mus mâlî´mus velî´tis nôlî´tis mâlî´tis velint nôlint mâlint _Impf._ vellem nôllem mâllem _Perf._ voluerim nôluerim mâluerim _Plup._ voluissem nôluissem mâluissem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ nôlî nôlîte _Fut._ nôlîtô, etc. INFINITIVE _Pres._ velle nôlle mâlle _Perf._ voluisse nôluisse mâluisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ volêns, -entis nôlêns, -entis ----] «380.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Magistrô laudante omnês puerî dîligenter labôrant», _with the teacher praising_, or _since the teacher praises_, or _the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently._ 2. «Caesare dûcente nêmô prôgredî timet», _with Cæsar leading_, or _when Cæsar leads_, or _if Cæsar leads_, or _Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance._ 3. «His rêbus cognitîs mîlitês fûgêrunt», _when this was known_, or _since this was known_, or _these things having been learned, the soldiers fled._ 4. «Proeliô commissô multî vulnerâtî sunt», _after the battle had begun_, or _when the battle had begun_, or _the battle having been joined, many were wounded._ _a._ One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition _with_ (cf. §50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses _attendant circumstance_. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a _with_ relation, and the ablative is the case to use. _b._ We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of _time_ (when or after), or one of _cause_ (since), or one of _concession_ (though), or one of _condition_ (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and tranlate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought. «381.» RULE. «Ablative Absolute.» _The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance._ NOTE 1. The verb «sum» has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, «tê duce», _you_ (being) _leader_, _with you as leader_; «patre înfirmô», _my father_ (being) _weak_. NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare _a._ _The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home_ _b._ _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home_ In _a_ the subject is _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_, and we translate, «Gallî â Caesare victi domum revertêrunt» In _b_ the subject is _the army_. _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate, «Gallîs â Caesare victîs exercitus domum revertit» NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate _Cæsar having encouraged the legions_ just as it stands, because «hortor» is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say _Cæsar having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because «vincô» is not deponent, and say, _the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ (see translation above). «382.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mâvîs, nôn vîs, vultis, nôlumus. 2. Ut nôlit, ut vellêmus, ut mâlit. 3. Nôlî, velle, nôluisse, mâlle. 4. Vult, mâvultis, ut nôllet, nôlîte. 5. Sôle oriente, avês cantâre incêpêrunt. 6. Clâmôribus audîtîs, barbarî prôgredî recûsâbant. 7. Caesare legiônês hortâtô, mîlitês paulô fortius pugnâvêrunt. 8. Hîs rêbus cognitîs, Helvêtiî fînitimîs persuâsêrunt ut sêcum iter facerent. 9. Labôribus cônfectîs, mîlitês â Caesare quaerêbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliô convocâtô, prîncipês ita respondêrunt. 11. Dux plûrîs diês in Helvêtiôrum fînibus morâns multôs vîcôs incendit. 12. Magnitûdine Germânôrum cognitâ, quîdam ex Rômânis timêbant. 13. Mercâtôribus rogâtîs, Caesar nihilô plûs reperîre potuit. II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (_the rumor having been heard_), commanded («imperâre») the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (_Cæsar, the business having been undertaken_), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3] [Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?] [Footnote 3: Not «longius». Why?] LESSON LXVIII THE IRREGULAR VERB _FÎÔ_ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT «383.» The verb «fîô», _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of «faciô», _make_, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from «faciô». Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the «i» is long except before «-er» and in «fit». _a._ The compounds of «facio» with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as, _Active_ «cônficiô, cônficere, cônfêcî, cônfectus» _Passive_ «cônficior, cônficî, cônfectus sum» [ Conjugation given in §500: PRINCIPAL PARTS «fîô, fierî, factus sum» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fîô ---- fîam _2d Pers._ fî fîte fîs ---- fit fîunt _Impf._ fîêbam fierem _Fut._ fîam ---- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE _Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem _F. P._ factus, -a, -um erô INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES _Pres._ fierî _Perf._ factus, -a, -um _Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um _Fut._ [[factum îrî]]] «384.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Terror erat tantus ut omnês fugerent», _the terror was so great that all fled._ 2. «Terror erat tantus ut nôn facile mîlitês sêsê reciperent», _the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves._ 3. «Terror fêcit ut omnês fugerent», _terror caused all to flee_ (lit. _made that all fled_). _a._ Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause. _b._ The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the _consequence_ or _result_ of this cause. _c._ The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the _subjunctive of consequence or result_, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause. _d._ In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb «fêcit». _e._ The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is «ut» = _so that_; negative, «ut nôn» = _so that not_. «385.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Result.» _Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nôn» and have the verb in the subjunctive._ «386.» RULE. _Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nôn» are found after verbs of «effecting» or «bringing about»._ «387.» «Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.» There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by «ut»; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has «nê» and the result clause «ut nôn». Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as «tam», «ita», «sic» (_so_), and these serve to point them out. Compare _a._ «Tam graviter vulnerâtus est ut caperêtur» _He was so severely wounded that he was captured_ _b._ «Graviter vulnerâtus est ut caperêtur» _He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured_ Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out? «388.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fit, fîet, ut fîat, fîêbâmus. 2. Fîô, fîês, ut fierent, fierî, fîunt. 3. Fîêtis, ut fîâmus, fîs, fîemus. 4. Mîlitês erant tam tardî ut ante noctem in castra nôn pervenîrent. 5. Sôl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modî perîcula erant ut nêmô proficîscî vellet. 7. Equitês hostium cum equitâtû nostrô in itinere contendêrunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostrî omnibus in partibus superiôrês essent. 8. Virtûs mîlitum nostrôrum fêcit ut hostês nê ûnum quidem[2] impetum sustinêrent. 9. Hominês erant tam audâcês ut nûllô modô continêrî possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mîlitês têla iacere nôn facile possent. 11. Hôc proeliô factô barbarî ita perterritî sunt ut ab ultimîs gentibus lêgâtî ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nê lêgâtî ad Caesarem mitterentur. [Footnote 1: «ita tamen», _with such a result however_.] [Footnote 2: «nê ... quidem», _not even_. The emphatic word is placed between.] II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself? [Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXIX THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE «389.» Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description. This construction is illustrated in the following sentences: 1. «Quis est quî suam domum nôn amet?» _who is there who does not love his own home?_ 2. «Erant quî hoc facere nôllent», _there were (some) who were unwilling to do this._ 3. «Tû nôn is es quî amîcôs trâdâs», _you are not such a one as to_, or _you are not the man to, betray your friends._ 4. «Nihil videô quod timeam», _I see nothing to fear_ (nothing of such as character as to fear it). _a._ Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences _Cæsar is the man who is leading us_, «Caesar est is quî nôs dûcit» (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative) _Cæsar is the man to lead us_, «Caesar est is quî nôs dûcat» (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive) _b._ Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is «quî», are translated _such a one as to, the man to_. _c._ In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive? _These are not the men who did this_ _These are not the men to do this_ «390.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Characteristic.» _A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the «subjunctive of characteristic or description»._ «391.» Observe the sentences 1. Rômânî «Caesarem cônsulem» fêcêrunt, _the Romans made «Cæsar consul»_. 2. «Caesar cônsul» â Rômânîs factus est, _«Cæsar» was made «consul» by the Romans_. _a._ Observe in 1 that the transitive verb «fêcêrunt», _made_, has two objects: (1) the direct object, «Caesarem»; (2) a second object, «cônsulem», referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative. _b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate nominative_. «392.» RULE. «Two Accusatives.» _Verbs of «making», «choosing», «calling», «showing», and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives._ «393.» The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are «creo, creâre, creâvî, creâtus», _choose_ «appellô, appellâre, appellâvî, appellâtus» } «nôminô, nôminâre, nôminâvî, nôminâtus» } _call_ «vocô, vocâre, vocâvî, vocâtus» } «faciô, facere, fêcî, factus», _make_ «394.» EXERCISES I. 1. In Germâniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferârum quae reliquîs in locîs nôn vîsa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvêtiî domô discêdere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nûlla, nûllum oppidum, nûllum praesidium quod sê armîs dêfenderet. 4. Tôtô frûmentô raptô, domî nihil erat quô mortem prohibêre possent. 5. Rômânî Galbam ducem creâvêrunt et summâ celeritâte profectî sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitûdinis quisquam quî morârî vellet. 7. Germânî nôn iî sunt quî adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cônsulibus occîsîs erant quî[2] vellent cum rêgem creâre. 9. Pâce factâ erat nêmô quî arma trâdere nôllet. 10. Inter Helvêtiôs quis erat quî nôbilior illô esset? II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all. [Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb «sum» precedes its subject it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.] [Footnote 2: «erant quî», _there were_ (some) _who_. A wholly indefinite antecedent of «quî» does not need to be expressed.] [Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.] [Footnote 4: See §389.b.] * * * * * «Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§527-528» * * * * * LESSON LXX THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION _CUM_ THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION «395.» The conjunction «cum» has the following meanings and constructions: «cum» TEMPORAL = _when_, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive «cum» CAUSAL = _since_, followed by the subjunctive «cum» CONCESSIVE = _although_, followed by the subjunctive As you observe, the mood after «cum» is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences: 1. «Caesarem vîdî tum cum in Galliâ eram», _I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul_. 2. «Caesar in eôs impetum fêcit cum pâcem peterent», _Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace_. 3. «Hoc erat difficile cum paucî sine vulneribus essent», _this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds_. 4. «Cum prîmî ôrdinês fûgissent, tamen reliquî fortiter cônsistêbant», _though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground_. _a._ The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. §389.a). When the «cum» clause states a fact and simply _fixes the time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, «cum in Galliâ eram» fixes the time when I saw Cæsar. _b._ On the other hand, when the «cum» clause _describes the circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the «cum» clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of _time_ is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of _description_. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of _cause_ and we translate «cum» by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and «cum» is translated _although_. «396.» RULE. «Constructions with _Cum_». _The conjunction «cum» means «when», «since», or «although». It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means «when» and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place._ NOTE. «Cum» in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative. «397.» Note the following sentences: 1. «Oppidum erat parvum magnitûdine sed magnum multitûdine hominum», _the town was small in size but great in population_. 2. «Homô erat corpore înfîrmus sed validus animô», _the man was weak in body but strong in courage_. _a._ Observe that «magnitûdine», «multitûdine», «corpore», and «animô» tell _in what respect_ something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the _ablative of specification_. «398.» RULE. «Ablative of Specification.» _The ablative is used to denote «in what respect» something is true._ «399.» IDIOMS «aliquem certiôrem facere», _to inform some one_ (lit. _to make some one more certain_) «certior fierî», _to be informed_ (lit. _to be made more certain_) «iter dare», _to give a right of way, allow to pass_ «obsidês inter sê dare», _to give hostages to each other_ «400.» EXERCISES I. 1. Helvêtiî cum patrum nostrôrum tempore domô prefectî essent, cônsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vênit, Helvêtiî aliôs agrôs petêbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriôre Gallia esset, tamen dê Helvêtiôrum cônsiliîs certior fîêbat. 4. Cum Helvêtiî bellô clârissimî essent, Caesar iter per prôvinciam dare recûsâvit. 5. Lêgâtus cum haec audîvisset, Caesarem certiôrem fecit. 6. Cum principês inter sê obsidês darent, Rômânî bellum parâvêrunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nûntiâtum esset, mâtûrat ab urbe proficîscî. 8. Nê virtûte quidem Gallî erant parês Germânis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animô înfîrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incêpit cum Caesar fuit cônsul. Observe in each case what mood follows «cum», and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the «cum» clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal. II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when («tum cum») I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws. LESSON LXXI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE «401.» Review the word lists in §§510, 511. «402.» «The Gerund.» Suppose we had to translate the sentence _By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory_ We can see that _overcoming_ here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the «gerund», declined as a neuter of the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and _ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows: _Nom._ «superâre», _overcoming, to overcome_ INFINITIVE _Gen._ «superandî», _of overcoming_ } _Dat._ «superandô», _for overcoming_ } _Acc._ «superandum», _overcoming_ } GERUND _Abl._ «superandô», _by overcoming_ } Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin «Superandô Gallôs Caesar magnam glôriam reportâvit» [Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.] «403.» The gerund[2] is formed by adding «-ndî, -ndô, -ndum, -ndô», to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below: PARADIGM OF THE GERUND CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV _Gen._ amandî monendî regendî capiendî audiendî _Dat._ amandô monendô regendô capiendô audiendô _Acc._ amandum monendum regendum capiendum audiendum _Abl._ amandô monendô regendô capiendô audiendô _a._ Give the gerund of «cûrô», «dêleô», «sûmô», «iaciô», «veniô». _b._ Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of «cônor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». [Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)] «404.» «The Gerundive.» The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate _the plan of waging war_, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say «cônsilium gerendî bellum»; or we may use the gerundive and say «cônsilium bellî gerendî», which means, literally, _the plan of the war to be waged_, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it. «405.» Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive: GERUND GERUNDIVE _Gen._ «Spês faciendî pâcem» «Spês faciendae pâcis» _Dat._ «Locus idôneus pugnandô» «Locus idôneus castrîs pônendîs» _A place suitable for_ _A place suitable for fighting_ pitching camp_ _Acc._ «Mîsit equitês ad însequendum» «Mîsit equitês ad însequendôs hostîs» _He sent horsemen to pursue_ _He sent horsemen to pursue the enemy_ _Abl._ «Nârrandô fâbulâs magister «Nârrandîs fâbulîs magister puerîs placuit» puerîs placuit» _The teacher pleased the _The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories_ boys by telling stories_ _a._ We observe (1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun. «406.» RULE. «Gerund and Gerundive.» 1. _The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns._ 2. _The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual._ «407.» RULE. «Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose.» _The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with_ «ad», _or the genitive with «causâ»[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose._ GERUND GERUNDIVE «Ad audiendum vênêrunt» or «Ad urbem videndam vênêrunt» or «Audiendî causâ vênêrunt» «Urbis videndae causâ vênêrunt» _They came to hear_ _They came to see the city_ [Footnote 3: «causâ» always _follows_ the genitive.] NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--«vênêrunt ut audîrent»; «vênêrunt ut urbem vidêrent.» In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common. «408.» We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, «equus Galbae», _Galba's horse._ If, now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba's_, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, «equus est Galbae». Hence this is called the predicate genitive. «409.» RULE. «Predicate Genitive.» _The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive._ «410.» IDIOMS «alîcui negôtium dare», _to employ someone_ (lit. _to give business to some one_) «novîs rêbus studêre», _to be eager for a revolution_ (lit. _to be eager for new things_) «reî mîlitâris perîtissimus», _very skillful in the art of war_ «sê suaque omnia», _themselves and all their possessions_ «411.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliâ bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiônis maximê fâvit quia reî mîlitâris perîtissimî erant. 2. Sociîs negôtium dedit reî frumentâriae cûrandae. 3. Lêgâti nôn sôlum audiendî causâ sed etiam dicendî causâ vênêrunt. 4. Imperâtor iussit explôrâtôres locum idôneum mûnindô reperîre. 5. Nuper hae gentês novîs rêbus studêbant; mox iîs persuâdêbô ut Caesarî sê suaque omnia dêdant. 6. Iubêre est regînae[4] et pârêre est multitûdinis.[4] 7. Hôc proeliô factô quîdam ex hostibus ad pâcem petendam venêrunt. 8. Erant quî arma trâdere nôllent. 9. Hostês tam celeriter prôgressî sunt ut spatium pîla in hostîs iaciendî non darêtur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendî[5] neque auxilî petendî[5] datum est. II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply? [Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.] [Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which gerundive?] [Footnote 6: _belong to_ = _are of_.] [Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with «ad».] [Footnote 8: Use the genitive with «causâ». Where should «causâ» stand?] [Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.] [Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.] LESSON LXXII THE IRREGULAR VERB _EÔ_ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS «412.» Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of «eô», _go_ (§499). _a._ Notice that «î-», the root of «eô», is changed to «e-» before a vowel, excepting in «iêns», the nominative of the present participle. In the perfect system «-v-» is regularly dropped. [ Conjugation given in §499: PRINCIPAL PARTS «eô, îre, iî (îvî), itum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM î- PERF. STEM î- or îv- PART. STEM it- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. _Pres._ eô îmus eam _2d Pers._ î îte îs îtis it eunt _Impf._ îbam îrem _Fut._ îbô ---- _2d Pers._ îtô îtôte _3d Pers._ îtô euntô _Perf._ iî (îvî) ierim (îverim) _Plup._ ieram (îveram) îssem (îvissem) _F. P._ ierô (îverô) INFINITIVE _Pres._ îre _Perf._ îsse (îvisse) _Fut._ itûrus, -a, -um esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ iêns, _gen._ euntis (§472) _Fut._ itûrus, -a, -um _Ger._ eundum GERUND _Gen._ eundî _Dat._ eundô _Acc._ eundum _Abl._ eundô SUPINE _Acc._ [[itum]] _Abl._ [[itû]] ] «413.» Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of «eô» with prepositions: «ad´eô, adî´re, ad´iî, ad´itus», _go to, visit_, with the accusative «ex´eô, exî´re, ex´iî, ex´itus», _go forth_, with «ex» or «dê» and the ablative of the place from which «in´eô, inî´re, in´iî, in´itus», _begin, enter upon_, with the accusative «red´eô, redî´re, red´iî, red´itus», _return_, with «ad» or «in» and the accusative of the place to which «trâns´eô, trânsî´re, trâns´iî, trâns´itus», _cross_, with the accusative «414.» «Indirect Statements in English.» Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the following direct and indirect statements: { 1. The Gauls are brave Direct statements { 2. The Gauls were brave { 3. The Gauls will be brave Indirect statements { 1. _He says_ that the Gauls _are_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He says_ that the Gauls _were_ brave the present tense { 3. _He says_ that the Gauls _will be_ brave Indirect statements { 1. _He said_ that the Gauls _were_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He said_ that the Gauls _had been_ brave a past tense { 3. _He said_ that the Gauls _would be_ brave We see that in English _a._ The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the conjunction _that_. _b._ The verb is finite (cf. §173) and its subject is in the nominative. _c._ The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the past tense, _He said._ «415.» «Indirect Statements in Latin.» In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows: DIRECT { 1. «Gallî sunt fortês» STATEMENTS { 2. «Gallî erant fortês» { 3. «Gallî erunt fortês» { 1. «Dîcit» or «Dîxit Gallôs esse fortîs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be brave_)[1] INDIRECT { 2. «Dîcit» or «Dîxit Gallôs fuisse fortîs» STATEMENTS { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to have been brave_)[1] { 3. «Dîcit» or «Dîxit Gallôs futûrôs esse fortîs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be about to be brave_)[1] [Footnote 1: These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.] Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences: _a._ There is no conjunction corresponding to _that_. _b._ The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the accusative. _c._ The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense of the principal verb. «416.» RULE. «Indirect Statements.» _When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive._ «417.» «Tenses of the Infinitive.» When the sentences in §415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, «sunt» became «esse», «erant» became «fuisse», and «erunt» became «futûrôs esse». «418.» RULE. «Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements.» _A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive._ NOTE. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect. «419.» RULE. «Verbs followed by Indirect Statements.» _The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of «saying», «telling», «knowing», «thinking», and «perceiving»._ «420.» Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are: _a_. Verbs of saying and telling: «dîcô, dîcere, dîxî, dictus», _say_ «negô, negâre, negâvî, negâtus», _deny, say not_ «nûntiô, nûntiâre, nûntiâvî, nûntiâtus», _announce_ «respondeô, respondêre, respondî, respônsus», _reply_ _b_. Verbs of knowing: «cognôscô, cognôscere, cognôvî, cognitus», _learn_, (in the perf.) _know_ «sciô, scîre, scîvî, scîtus», _know_ _c_. Verbs of thinking: «arbitror, arbitrârî, arbitrâtus sum», _think, consider_ «exîstimô, exîstimâre, exîstimâvî, exîstimâtus», _think, believe_ «iûdicô, iûdicâre, iûdicâvi, iûdicâtus», _judge, decide_ «putô, putâre, putâvî, putâtus», _reckon, think_ «spêrô, spêrâre, spêrâvi, spêrâtus», _hope_ _d_. Verbs of perceiving: «audiô, audîre, audîvî, audîtus», _hear_ «sentiô, sentîre, sênsî, sênsus», _feel, perceive_ «videô, vidêre, vîdî, vîsus», _see_ «intellegô, intellegere, intellêxî, intellêctus», _understand, perceive_ Learn such of these verbs as are new to you. «421.» IDIOMS «postrîdiê eius diêî», _on the next day_ (lit. _on the next day of that day_) «initâ aestâte», _at the beginning of summer_ «memoriâ tenêre», _to remember_ (lit. _to hold by memory_) «per explôrâtôrês cognôscere», _to learn through scouts_ «422.» EXERCISES I. 1. It, îmus, îte, îre. 2. Euntî, iisse _or_ îsse, îbunt, eunt. 3. Eundi, ut eant, îbitis, îs. 4. Nê îrent, î, îbant, ierat. 5. Caesar per explorâtores cognôvit Gallôs flûmen trânsîsse. 6. Rômânî audîvêrunt Helvêtiôs initâ aestâte dê fînibus suîs exitûrôs esse. 7. Legâtî respondêrunt nêminem ante Caesarem illam însulam adîsse. 8. Prîncipês Gallôrum dîcunt sê nûllum cônsilium contrâ Caesaris imperium initûrôs esse. 9. Arbitrâmur potentiam rêgînae esse maiôrem quam cîvium. 10. Rômânî negant se lîbertâtem Gallîs êreptûrôs esse. 11. Hîs rêbus cognitîs sênsimus lêgâtôs non vênisse ad pâcem petendam. 12. Helvêtii sciunt Rômânôs priôrês victôriâs memoriâ tenêre. 13. Sociî cum intellegerent multôs vulnerârî, statuêrunt in suôs fînîs redîre. 14. Aliquis nûntiâvit Mârcum cônsulem creâtum esse. II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy's town was ten miles off.[2] 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen. [Footnote 2: _to be off, to be distant_, «abesse».] [Footnote 3: Latin, _were of_ (§409).] [Illustration: TUBA] LESSON LXXIII VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE IRREGULAR VERB _FERÔ_ THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS «423.» Review the word lists in §§513, 514. «424.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb «ferô», _bear_ (§498). 1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds of ferô, _bear_: «ad´ferô, adfer´re, at´tulî, adlâ´tus», _bring to; report_ «côn´ferô, cônfer´re, con´tulî, conlâ´tus», _bring together, collect_ «dê´ferô, dêfer´re, dê´tulî, dêlâ´tus», _bring to; report; grant, confer_ «în´ferô, înfer´re, in´tulî, inlâ´tus», _bring in, bring against_ «re´ferô, refer´re, ret´tulî, relâ´tus», _bear back, report_ [ Conjugation given in §498: PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferô, ferre, tulî, lâtus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lât- INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ ferô ferimus feror ferimur fers fertîs ferris, -re ferimimî fert ferunt fertur feruntur _Impf._ ferêbam ferêbar _Fut._ feram, ferês, etc. ferar, ferêris, etc. _Perf._ tulî lâtus, -a, -um sum _Plup._ tuleram lâtus, -a, -um eram _F. P._ tulerô lâtus, -a, -um erô SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ feram, ferâs, etc. ferar, ferâris, etc. _Impf._ ferrem ferrer _Perf._ tulerim lâtus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ tulissem lâtus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ fer ferte ferre feriminî _Fut. 2d Pers._ fertô fertôte fertor _3d Pers._ fertô ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ ferre ferrî _Perf._ tulisse lâtus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ lâtûrus, -a, -um esse ---- PARTICIPLES _Pres._ ferêns, -entis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ lâtûrus, -a, -um _Ger._ ferendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ lâtus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ ferendî _Dat._ ferendô _Acc._ ferendum _Abl._ ferendô SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[lâtum]] _Abl._ [[lâtû]] ] «425.» The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf. §153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. _The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, defends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object._ A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following sentences: 1. «Haec rês exercituî magnam calamitâtem attulit», _this circumstance brought great disaster to the army._ 2. «Germânî Gallîs bellum înferunt», _the Germans make war upon the Gauls._ 3. «Hae côpiae proeliô nôn intererant», _these troops did not take part in the battle._ 4. «Equitês fugientibus hostibus occurrunt», _the horsemen meet the fleeing enemy._ 5. «Galba côpiîs fîlium praefêcit», _Galba put his son in command of the troops._ In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative. «426.» RULE. «Dative with Compounds.» _Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dê», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prô», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative._ NOTE 1. Among such verbs are[1] «ad´ferô, adfer´re, at´tulî, adlâ´tus», _bring to; report_ «ad´sum, ades´se, ad´fuî, adfutû´rus», _assist; be present_ «dê´ferô, dêfer´re, dê´tulî, dêlâtus», _report; grant, confer_ «dê´sum, dees´se, dê´fuî,----», _be wanting, be lacking_ «în´ferô, înfer´re, in´tulî, inlâ´tus», _bring against, bring upon_ «inter´sum, interes´se, inter´fuî, interfutû´rus», _take part in_ «occur´rô, occur´rere, occur´rî, occur´sus», _run against, meet_ «praefi´ciô, praefi´cere, praefê´cî, praefec´tus», _appoint over, place in command of_ «prae´sum, praees´se, prae´fuî, ----», _be over, be in command_ [Footnote 1: But the accusative with «ad» or «in» is used with some of these, when the idea of _motion to_ or _against_ is strong.] «427.» IDIOMS «graviter» or «molestê ferre», _to be annoyed at, to be indignant at_, followed by the accusative and infinitive «sê cônferre ad» or «in», with the accusative, _to betake one's self to_ «alicui bellum înferre», _to make war upon some one_ «pedem referre», _to retreat_ (lit. _to bear back the foot_) «428.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferêns, lâtus esse, ferre. 4. Cum nâvigia insulae adpropinquârent, barbarî terrôre commôtî pedem referre cônâtî sunt. 5. Gallî molestê ferêbant Rômânôs agrôs vastâre. 6. Caesar sociîs imperâvit nê fînitimis suîs bellum înferrent. 7. Explorâtôrês, qui Caesarî occurrêrunt, dîxêrunt exercitum hostium vulneribus dêfessum sêsê in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciêbant Rômânôs frûmentô egêre et hanc rem Caesarî summum perîculum adlâtûram esse. 9. Impedîmentîs in ûnum locum conlâtis, aliquî mîlitum flûmen quod nôn longê aberat trânsiêrunt. 10. Hôs rêx hortâtus est ut ôrâculum adîrent et rês audîtâs ad sê referrent. 11. Quem imperâtor illî legiônî praefêcit? Pûblius illî legiônî pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriôre Galliâ, crêbrî ad eum[2] rûmôrês adferêbantur litterîsque quoque certior fîêbat Gallôs obsidês inter sê dare. II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Cæsar's allies. 2. We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Cæsar's allies. 3. Publius did not take part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6. Cæsar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army. [Footnote 2: Observe that when «adferô» denotes _motion to_, it is not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.] [Footnote 3: Not the infinitive. (Cf. §352.)] LESSON LXXIV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS «429.» Review the word lists in §§517, 518. «430.» When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf. §414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question. DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION _Who conquered the Gauls? He asked who conquered the Gauls_ _a._ An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of asking (as «petô», «postulô», «quaerô», «rogô») or upon some verb or expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. §420.) «431.» Compare the following direct and indirect questions: DIRECT INDIRECT «Quis Gallôs vincit?» { _a._ «Rogat quis Gallôs vincat» _Who is conquering the_ { _He asks who is conquering the_ _Gauls?_ { _Gauls_ { _b._ «Rogavit quis Gallôs vinceret» { _He asked who was conquering_ { _the Gauls_ { _a._ «Rogat ubi sit Rôma» «Ubî est Rôma?» { _He asks where Rome is_ _Where is Rome?_ { _b._ «Rogâvit ubi esset Rôma» { _He asked where Rome was_ { _a._ «Rogat num Caesar Gallôs vîcerit» { _He asks whether Cæsar conquered_ «Caesarne Gallôs vîcit?» { _the Gauls_ _Did Cæsar conquer the_ { _b._ «Rogâvit num Caesar Gallôs _Gauls?_ { «vîcisset» { _He asked whether Cæsar had_ { _conquered the Gauls_ _a._ The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question. _b._ The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense sequence. _c._ Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting that_yes_-or-_no_ direct questions (cf. §210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by «num», _whether_. «432.» RULE. «Indirect Questions.» _In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence._ «433.» IDIOMS «dê tertiâ vigiliâ», _about the third watch_ «iniûriâs alicui înferre», _to inflict injuries upon some one_ «facere verba prô», with the ablative, _to speak in behalf of_ «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «434.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rêx rogâvit quid lêgâtî postulârent et cûr ad sê vênissent. 2. Quaesîvit quoque num nec recentîs iniûriâs nec dubiam Rômânôrum amîcitiam memoriâ tenêrent. 3. Vidêtisne quae oppida hostês oppugnâverint? 4. Nônne scîtis cûr Gallî sub montem sêse contulerint? 5. Audîvimus quâs iniûrias tibi Germânî intulissent. 6. Dê tertiâ vigiliâ imperâtor mîsit hominês quî cognôscerent quae esset nâtûra montis. 7. Prô hîs ôrâtor verba fêcit et rogâvit cûr cônsulês nâvîs ad plênem summî perîculî locum mittere vellent. 8. Lêgâtîs convocâtîs dêmônstrâvit quid fierî vellet. 9. Nûntius referêbat quid in Gallôrum conciliô dê armîs trâdendîs dictum esset. 10. Moneô nê in reliquum tempus peditês et equitês trâns flûmen dûcâs. II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home. LESSON LXXV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH «435.» Review the word lists in §§521, 522. «436.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Explôrâtôrês locum castrîs dêlêgêrunt», _the scouts chose a place for a camp._ 2. «Hoc erat magnô impedîmentô Gallîs», _this was_ (for) _a great hindrance to the Gauls._ 3. «Duâs legiônês praesidiô castrîs relîquit», _he left two legions as_ (lit. _for_) _a guard to the camp._ In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the _purpose or end for which_ something is intended or for which it serves. These datives are «castrîs», «impedîmentô», and «praesidiô». In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the _person or thing affected_ («Gallîs» and «castrîs»). As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of _for which_ and _to which_. (Cf. §43.) «437.» RULE. «Dative of Purpose or End.» _The dative is used to denote the «purpose or end for which», often with another dative denoting the «person or thing affected»._ «438.» IDIOMS «cônsilium omittere», _to give up a plan_ «locum castrîs dêligere», _to choose a place for a camp_ «alicui magnô ûsuî esse», _to be of great advantage to some one_ (lit. _for great advantage to some one_) «439.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rogâvit cûr illae côpiae relictae essent. Respondêrunt illâs côpiâs esse praesidiô castrîs. 2. Caesar mîsit explôrâtôrês ad locum dêligendum castrîs. 3. Quisque exîstimâvit ipsum nômen Caesaris magnô terrôrî barbarîs futûrum esse. 4. Prîmâ lûce îdem exercitus proelium âcre commîsit, sed gravia suôrum vulnera magnae cûrae imperâtôrî erant. 5. Rêx respondit amîcitiam populî Rômânî sibi ôrnâmentô et praesidiô dêbêre esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitâtuî quem auxiliô Caesarî sociî mîserant? 7. Aliquibus rês secundae sunt summae calamitâtî et rês adversae sunt mîrô ûsuî. 8. Gallîs magnô ad pugnam erat impedîmentô quod equitâtus â dextrô cornû premêbat. 9. Memoria prîstinae virtûtis nôn minus quam metus hostium erat nostrîs magnô ûsuî. 10. Tam dênsa erat silva ut prôgredî nôn possent. II. 1. I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2. Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4. Cæsar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6. Cæsar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those who burned the public buildings. [Footnote 1: Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf. §366.)] [Footnote 2: Express by the genitive of the gerundive.] [Footnote 3: Indirect question.] [Footnote 4: A clause of result.] [Footnote 5: «gravis, -e.»] LESSON LXXVI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION «440.» Review the word lists in §§524, 525. «441.» Observe the English sentences (1) _A man «of» great courage_, or (2) _A man «with» great courage_ (3) _A forest «of» tall trees_, or (4) _A forest «with» tall trees_ Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description. In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions _of_ and _with_. In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar. The prepositions _of_ and _with_ suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above (1) «Vir magnae virtûtis», or (2) «Vir magnâ virtûte» (3) «Silva altârum arborum», or (4) «Silva altîs arboribus» There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English. In English we may say, for example, _a man of courage_, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. _In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used_, as above. _a._ Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that _numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive_ and _descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative._ Other descriptive phrases may be in either case. «442.» EXAMPLES 1. «Fossa duodecim pedum», _a ditch of twelve feet_. 2. «Homô magnîs pedibus et parvô capite», _a man with big feet and a small head_. 3. «Rêx erat vir summâ audâciâ» or «rêx erat vir summae audâciae», _the king was a man of the greatest boldness_. «443.» RULE. «Genitive of Description.» _Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective._ «444.» RULE. «Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «445.» RULE. «Genitive or Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «446.» IDIOMS «Helvêtiîs in animô est», _the Helvetii intend_, (lit. _it is in mind to the Helvetians_) «in mâtrimônium dare», _to give in marriage_ «nihil posse», _to have no power_ «fossam perdûcere», _to construct a ditch_ (lit. _to lead a ditch through_) «447.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mîlitês fossam decem pedum per eôrum fînîs perdûxêrunt. 2. Prînceps Helvêtiôrum, vir summae audâciae, prîncipibus gentium fînitimârum sorôrês in mâtrimônium dedit. 3. Eôrum amîcitiam cônfîrmâre voluit quô facilius Rômânîs bellum înferret. 4. Germanî et Gallî nôn erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnês ferê Germânî erant magnîs corporum vîribus.[1] 6. Gallî qui oppidum fortiter dêfendêbant saxa ingentis magnitûdinis dê mûrô iaciêbant. 7. Cum Caesar ab explôrâtôribus quaereret quî illud oppidum incolerent, explôrâtôrês respondêrunt eôs esse homines summâ virtûte et magnô cônsiliô. 8. Moenia vîgintî pedum â sinistrâ parte, et â dextrâ parte flûmen magnae altitûdinis oppidum dêfendêbant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervênisset, erat rûmor Helvêtiîs in animô esse iter per prôvinciam Rômânam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eôs ab fînibus Rômânis prohibêret, mûnîtiônem [2]multa mîlia passuum longam fêcit. II. 1. Cæsar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king's daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was between us and the enemy. [Footnote 1: From «vîs». (Cf. §468.)] [Footnote 2: Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective phrases. When we use an _adverbial_ phrase to tell _how long_ or _how high_ or _how deep_ anything is, we must use the accusative of extent. (Cf. §336.) For example, in the sentence above «multa mîlia passuum» is an adverbial phrase (accusative of extent) modifying «longam». If we should omit «longam» and say _a fortification of many miles_, the genitive of description (an adjective phrase) modifying «mûnîtiônem» would be used, as «mûnîtiônem multôrum mîlium passuum».] [Illustration: GLADII] LESSON LXXVII REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE «448.» There are four agreements: 1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to which it belongs (§§76, 81). 2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its noun (§65). 3. That of a verb with its subject (§28). 4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (§224). «449.» The relation expressed by the «genitive» is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition _of_. It is used to express { _a._ As attributive (§38). 1. Possession { { _b._ In the predicate (§409). 2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (§331). 3. Quality or description (§§443, 445). «450.» The relation expressed by the «dative» is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions _to_ or _for_ when they do not imply motion through space. It is used to express { _a._ With intransitive verbs and with { transitive verbs in connection with a { direct object in the accusative (§45). 1. The indirect object { _b_. With special intransitive verbs (§154). { _c_. With verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», { «con», «dê», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», { «prae», «prô», «sub», «super» (§426). 2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed (§143). 3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting the person or thing affected (§437). «451.» The «accusative» case corresponds, in general, to the English objective. It is used to express 1. The direct object of a transitive verb (§37). 2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after verbs of _making, choosing, falling, showing_, and the like (§392). 3. The subject of the infinitive (§214). 4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (§340). 5. The duration of time and the extent of space (§336). 6. The place to which (§§263, 266). «452.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mîlitês quôs vîdimus dîxêrunt imperium bellî esse Caesaris imperâtôris. 2. Helvêtiî statuêrunt quam[1] maximum numerum equôrum et carrôrum côgere. 3. Tôtîus Galliae Helvêtiî plûrimum valuêrunt. 4. Multâs hôrâs âcriter pugnâtum est neque quisquam poterat vidêre hostem fugientem. 5. Virî summae virtûtis hostîs decem mîlia passuum însecûtî sunt. 6. Caesar populô Rômânô persuâsit ut sê cônsulem creâret. 7. Victôria exercitûs erat semper imperâtôrî grâtissima. 8. Trîduum iter fêcêrunt et Genâvam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervênêrunt. 9. Caesar audîvit Germânôs bellum Gallîs intulisse. 10. Magnô ûsuî mîlitibus Caesaris erat quod priôribus proeliîs sêsê exercuerant. II. 1. One[3] of the king's sons and many of his men were captured. 2. There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3. The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Cæsar, the general. 4. I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6. The plan [5]of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall. [Footnote 1: What is the force of «quam» with superlatives?] [Footnote 2: «urbs» or «oppidum», appositive to a name of a town, takes a preposition.] [Footnote 3: What construction is used with numerals in preference to the partitive genitive?] [Footnote 4: What mood? (Cf. §390.)] [Footnote 5: Use the gerund or gerundive.] [Footnote 6: Latin, _by a wall of twelve feet._] LESSON LXXVIII REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE «453.» The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions _with_ (or _by_), _from_ (or _by_), and _in_ (or _at_). The constructions growing out of these meanings are I. Ablative rendered _with_ (or _by_): 1. Cause (§102) 2. Means (§103) 3. Accompaniment (§104) 4. Manner (§105) 5. Measure of difference (§317) 6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381) 7. Description or quality (§§444, 445) 8. Specification (§398) II. Ablative rendered _from_ (or _by_): 1. Place from which (§§179, 264) 2. Ablative of separation (§180) 3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181) 4. Comparison without «quam» (§309) III. Ablative rendered _in_ (or _at_): 1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266) 2. Time when or within which (§275) «454.» EXERCISES I. 1. Gallî locîs superiôribus occupâtîs itinere exercitum prohibêre cônantur. 2. Omnês oppidânî ex oppidô êgressî salûtem fugâ petere incêpêrunt. 3. Caesar docet sê mîlitum vîtam suâ salûte habêre multô câriôrem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opîniône pervênisset, hostês ad eum obsidês mîsêrunt 5. Vîcus in valle positus montibus altissimîs undique continêtur. 6. Plûrimum inter Gallôs haec gêns et virtûte et hominum numerô valêbat. 7. Secundâ vigiliâ nûllô certô ôrdine neque imperiô ê castrîs êgressî sunt. 8. Duâbus legiônibus Genâvae relictîs, proximô diê cum reliquîs domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvêtiî domô exîre possent. 10. Rêx erat summâ audâciâ et magnâ apud populum potentiâ. 11. Gallî timôre servitûtis commôtî bellum parâbant. 12. Caesar monet lêgâtôs ut contineant militês, nê studiô pugnandî aut spê praedae longius[1] prôgrediantur. 13. Bellum âcerrimum â Caesare in Gallôs gestum est. II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is [2]ten miles shorter than that. 5. In summer Cæsar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls. [Footnote 1: «longius», _too far_. (Cf. §305.)] [Footnote 2: Latin, _by ten thousands of paces_.] [Footnote 3: «dêfendere».] [Footnote 4: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXXIX REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE «455.» The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (§§402, 406.1). «456.» The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (§406.2). «457.» The infinitive is used: I. As in English. _a._ As subject or predicate nominative (§216). _b._ To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication (complementary infinitive) (§215). _c._ As object with subject accusative after verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like (§213). II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs of _saying _and _mental action_. The subject is in the accusative (§§416, 418, 419). «458.» The subjunctive is used: 1. To denote purpose (§§349, 366, 372). 2. To denote consequence or result (§§385, 386). 3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (§390). 4. In «cum» clauses of time, cause, and concession (§396). 5. In indirect questions (§432). «459.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar, cum pervênisset, militês hortâbâtur nê cônsilium oppidî capiendi omitterent. 2. Rêx, castrîs prope oppidum positîs, mîsit explôrâtôrês quî cognôscerent ubi exercitus Rômanus esset. 3. Nêmo relinquêbâtur quî arma ferre posset. 4. Nûntiî vîdêrunt ingentem armôrum multitudinem dê mûrô in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suôs trânsîre flûmen iussit. Trânsîre autem hoc flûmen erat difficillimum. 6. Rômânî cum hanc calamitâtem molestê ferrant, tamen terga vertere recûsâvêrunt. 7. Hôc rûmôre audîtô, tantus terror omnium animôs occupâvit ut nê fortissimî quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant quî putârent tempus annî idôneum nôn esse itinerî faciendô. 9. Tam âcriter ab utraque parte pugnâbâtur ut multa mîlia hominum occîderentur. 10. Quid timês? Timeô nê Rômânîs in animô sit tôtam Galliam superâre et nôbîs iniûriâs inferre. II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Cæsar ordered a bridge to be made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Cæsar would pursue them. 6. Cæsar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts [3]to choose a place for a camp. [Footnote 1: «quaerere ab».] [Footnote 2: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 3: Use the gerundive with «ad».] READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS «How to Translate.» You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following suggestions: 1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. 2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object. 3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the sentence from their endings. 4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English meanings of all the words _in the same order as the Latin words_. You will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence. 5. Be careful to _a._ Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong. _b._ Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they govern. _c._ Translate adverbs with the words that they modify. _d._ _Make sense._ If you do not make sense, you have made a mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence. 6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the English translation. «The Parts of a Sentence.» You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object. However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the sentence _The idle boy does not study_, the word _idle_ is an adjective. In _The boy wasting his time does not study_, the words _wasting his time_ form an adjective phrase modifying _boy_. In the sentence _The boy who wastes his time does not study_, the words _who wastes his time_ form an adjective clause modifying _boy_, and the sentence is complex. These sentences would show the same structure in Latin. In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called _subordinate conjunctions_. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as _when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that_, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce. [Illustration: HERCULES] THE LABORS OF HERCULES Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyæ. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani´ra. Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira. Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband's love. Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband's garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter. [Illustration: HERCULES ET SERPENTES] LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS Dî[2] grave supplicium sûmmit de malîs, sed iî quî lêgibus[3] deôrum pârent, etiam post mortem cûrantur. Illa vîta dîs[2] erat grâtissima quae hominibus miserîs ûtilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiôrum summum erat immortâlitâs. Illud praemium Herculî datum est. Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, mâter Alcmêna, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dîcitur. Sed Iûnô, rêgîna deôrum, eum, adhûc înfantem, interficere studêbat; nam eî[1] et[2] Herculês et Alcmêna erant invîsî. Itaque mîsit duâs serpentîs, utramque saevissimam, quae mediâ nocte domum[3] Alcmênae vênêrunt. Ibi Herculês, cum frâtre suô, nôn in lectulô sed in scûtô ingentî dormiêbat. Iam audâcês serpentês adpropinquâverant, iam scûtum movêbant. Tum frâter, terrôre commôtus, magnâ vôce mâtrem vocâvit, sed Herculês ipse, fortior quam frâter, statim ingentîs serpentîs manibus suîs rapuit et interfêcit. [Footnote 1: This number refers to the lesson after which the selection may be read.] [Footnote 2: «Dî» and «dîs» are from «deus». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «lêgibus», §501.14.] [Footnote 1: «eî», _to her_, referring to Juno.] [Footnote 2: «et ... et», _both ... and_.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYÆ Herculês â puerô[1] corpus suum gravissimîs et difficillimîs labôribus exercêbat et hôc modô vîrês[2] suâs cônfirmâvit. Iam adulêscêns Thêbîs[3] habitâbat. Ibi Creôn quîdam erat rêx. Minyae, gêns validissima, erant fînitimî Thêbânîs, et, quia ôlim Thêbânôs vîcerant, quotannîs lêgâtôs mittêbant et vectîgal postulâbant. Herculês autem cônstituit cîvîs suôs hôc vectîgâlî lîberâre et dixit rêgî, "Dâ mihi exercitum tuum et ego hôs superbôs hostîs superâbô." Hanc condiciônem rêx nôn recûsâvit, et Herculês nûntiôs in omnîs partis dîmîsit et côpiâs coêgit.[4] Tum tempore opportûnissimô proelium cum Minyîs commîsit. Diû pugnâtum est, sed dênique illî impetum Thêbânôrum sustinêre nôn potuêrunt et terga vertêrunt fugamque cêpêrunt. [Footnote 1: «â puerô», _from boyhood_.] [Footnote 2: «virês», from «vîs». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «Thêbîs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 4: «coêgit», from «côgô».] HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION Post hoc proelium Creôn rêx, tantâ victôriâ laetus, fîliam suam Herculî in mâtrimônium dedit. Thêbîs Herculês cum uxôre suâ diû vîvêbat et ab omnibus magnopere amâbâtur; sed post multôs annôs subitô [1]in furôrem incidit et ipse suâ manû lîberôs suôs interfêcit. Post breve tempus [2]ad sânitâtem reductus tantum scelus expiâre cupiêbat et cônstituit ad ôrâculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem ôrâculum erat omnium clârissimum. Ibi sedêbat fêmina quaedam quae Pythia appellâbâtur. Ea cônsilium dabat iîs quî ad ôrâculum veniêbant. [Footnote 1: «in furôrem incidit», _went mad_.] [Footnote 2: «ad sânitâtem reductus», lit. _led back to sanity_. What in good English?] [Illustration: HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT] LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] · HE STRANGLES THE NEME´AN LION Itaque Herculês Pythiae tôtam rem dêmonstrâvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculês fînem fêcit, Pythia iussit eum ad urbem Tîryntha[2] discêdere et ibi rêgî Eurystheô sêsê committere. Quae[3] ubi audîvit, Herculês ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheô sê in servitûtem trâdidit et dîxit, "Quid prîmum, Ô rêx, mê facere iubês?" Eurystheus, quî perterrêbâtur vî et corpore ingentî Herculis et eum occidî[4] studêbat, ita respondit: "Audî, Herculês! Multa mira[5] nârrantur dê leône saevissimô quî hôc tempore in valle Nemaeâ omnia vâstat. Iubeô tê, virôrum omnium fortissimum, illô mônstrô hominês lîberâre." Haec verba Herculî maximê placuêrunt. "Properâbo," inquit, "et parêbô imperiô[6] tuô." Tum in silvâs in quibus leô habitâbat statim iter fêcit. Mox feram vîdit et plûrîs impetûs fêcit; frûstrâ tamen, quod neque sagittîs neque ûllô aliô têlô mônstrum vulnerâre potuit. Dênique Herculês saevum leônem suîs ingentibus bracchiîs rapuit et faucîs eius omnibus vîribus compressit. Hôc modô brevî tempore eum interfêcit. Tum corpus leônis ad oppidum in umerîs reportâvit et pellem posteâ prô[7] veste gerêbat. Omnês autem quô eam regiônem incolêbant, ubi fâmam dê morte leônis ingentis accêpêrunt, erant laetissimî et Herculem laudâbant verbîs amplissimîs. [Footnote 1: «Eu-rys´theus» (pronounced _U-ris´thûs_) was king of _Tî´ryns_, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric times.] [Footnote 2: «Tîryntha», the acc. case of «Tîryns», a Greek noun.] [Footnote 3: «Quae», obj. of «audîvit». It is placed first to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. This is called a connecting relative.] [Footnote 4: «occîdî», pres. pass. infin.] [Footnote 5: «mîra», _marvelous things_, the adj. being used as a noun. Cf. «omnia», in the next line.] [Footnote 6: «imperiô», §501.14.] [Footnote 7: «prô», _for, instead of_.] LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE´AN HYDRA Deinde Herculês ab Eurystheô iussus est Hydram occîdere. Itaque cum amîcô Iolâô[1] contendit ad palûdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolêbat. Hoc autem mônstrum erat serpêns ingêns quae novem capita habêbat. Mox is mônstrum repperit et summô[2] cum perîculô collum eius sinistrâ manû rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrâ manû capita novem abscîdere incêpit, sed frûstrâ labôrâbat, quod quotiêns hoc fêcerat totiêns alia nova capita vidêbat. Quod[3] ubi vîdit, statuit capita ignî cremâre. Hôc modô octô capita dêlêvit, sed extrêmum caput vulnerârî nôn potuit, quod erat immortâle. Itaque illud sub ingentî saxô Herculês posuit et ita victôriam reportâvit. [Footnote 1: «Iolâô», abl. of _I-o-lâ´us_, the hero's best friend.] [Footnote 2: Note the emphatic position of this adjective.] [Footnote 3: «Quod ubi», _when he saw this_, another instance of the connecting relative. Cf. p. 199, l. 3.] LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR Postquam Eurystheô mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad sê reportâre cervum quendam; nam minimê cupîvit tantum virum in rêgnô suô tenêre. Hie autem cervus dîcêbâtur aurea cornua et pedês multô[1] celeriôrês ventô[2] habêre. Prîmum Herculês vestîgia animâlis petîvit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vîdit, omnibus vîribus currere incêpit. Per plûrimôs diês contendit nec noctû cessâvit. Dênique postquam per tôtum annum cucurrerat--ita dîcitur--cervum iam dêfessum cêpit et ad Eurystheum portâvit. Tum vêrô iussus est Herculês aprum quendam capere quî illô tempore agrôs Erymanthiôs vâstâbat et hominês illîus locî magnopere perterrêbat. Herculês laetê negôtium suscêpit et in Arcadiam celeriter sê recêpit. Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vîdit, statim quam[3] celerrimê fûgit et metû perterritus in fossam altam sêsê abdidit. Herculês tamen summâ cum difficultâte eum extrâxit, nec aper ûllô modô sêsê lîberâre potuit, et vîvus ad Eurystheum portâtus est. [Footnote 1: «multô», §501.27.] [Footnote 2: «ventô», §501.34.] [Footnote 3: «quam». What is the force of «quam» with a superlative?] LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE´AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS Deinde Eurystheus Herculî hunc labôrem multô graviôrem imperâvit. Augêâs[1] quîdam, quî illô tempore rêgnum Êlidis[2] obtinêbat, tria mîlia boum[3] habêbat. Hî[4] ingentî stabulô continêbantur. Hoc stabulum, quod per trîgintâ annôs nôn pûrgâtum erat, Herculês intrâ spatium ûnîus diêî pûrgâre iussus est. llle negôtium alacriter suscêpit, et prîmum labôre gravissimô maximam fossam fôdit per quam flûminis aquam dê montibus ad mûrum stabulî dûxit. Tum partem parvam mûrî dêlêvit et aquam in stabulum immîsit. Hôc modô fînm operis fêcit ûnô diê facillimê. Post paucôs diês Herculês ad oppidum Stymphâlum iter fêcit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphâlidês occîdere. Hae avês rôstra ferrea habêbant et hominês miserôs dêvorâbant. Ille, postquam ad locum pervênit, lacum vîdit in quô avês incolêbant. Nûllô tamen modô Herculês avibus adpropinquâre potuit; lacus enim nôn ex aquâ sed ê lîmô cônstitit.[5] Dênique autem avês [6]dê aliquâ causâ perterritae in aurâs volâvêrunt et magna pars eârum sagittîs Herculis occîsa est. [Footnote 1: «Augêâs», pronounced in English _Aw-jê´as_.] [Footnote 2: «Êlidis», gen. case of «Êlis», a district of Greece.] [Footnote 3: «boum», gen. plur. of «bôs». For construction see §501.11.] [Footnote 4: «ingentî stabulô», abl. of means, but in our idiom we should say _in a huge stable_.] [Footnote 5: «cônstitit», from «consto».] [Footnote 6: «dê aliquâ causâ perterritae», _frightened for some reason_.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET TAURUS] LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portâre vîvum ex însulâ Crêtâ taurum quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur nâvem cônscendit--nam ventus erat idôneus--atque statim solvit. Postquam trîduum nâvigavit, incolumis însulae adpropinquâvit. Deinde, postquam omnia parâta sunt, contendit ad eam regiônem quam taurus vexâbat. Mox taurum vîdit ac sine ûllô metû cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingentî labôre mônstrum ad nâvem trâxit atque cum hâc praedâ ex însulâ discessit. THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME´DES Postquam ex însulâ Crêtâ domum pervênit, Hercules ab Eurystheô in Thrâciam missus est. Ibi Diomêdês quîdam, vir saevissimus, rêgnum obtinêbat et omnîs â fînibus suîs prohibêbat. Herculês iussus erat equôs Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum dûcere. Hî autem equî hominês miserrimôs dêvorâbant dê quibus rêx supplicium sûmere cupiêbat. Herculês ubi pervênit, prîmum equôs â rêge postulâvit, sed rêx eôs dêdere recûsâvit. Deinde ille îrâ commôtus rêgem occîdit et corpus eius equîs trâdidit. Itaque is quî anteâ multôs necâverat, ipse eôdem suppliciô necâtus est. Et equî, nûper saevissima animâlia, postquam dominî suî corpus dêvorâvêrunt, mânsuêtî erant. LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL´YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS Gêns Amâzonum[1] dîcitur[2] omnînô ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum virîs proelium committere nôn verêbantur. Hippolytê, Amâzonum rêgîna, balteum habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidêre fîlia Eurystheî vehementer cupiêbat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amâzonês facere. Ille multîs cum côpiîs nâvem cônscendît et paucis diêbus in Amâzonum fînîs pervênit, ac balteum postulâvit. Eum trâdere ipsa Hipporytê quidem cupîvit; reliquîs tamen Amazonibus[3] persuâdêre nôn potuit. Postrîdiê Herculês proelium commîsit. Multâs hôrâs utrimque quam fortissimê pugnâtum est Dênique tamen mulieres terga vertêrunt et fugâ salûtem petiêrunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quô numerô erat ipsa Hippolytê. Herculês postquam balteum accêpit, omnibus captîvîs lîbertâtem dedit. [Footnote 1: A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 2: «omnînô», etc., _to have consisted entirely of women._] [Footnote 3: «Amâzonibus», §501.14.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET CERBERUS] THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER´BERUS Iamque ûnus modo ê duodecim labôribus relinquêbâtur sed inter omnîs hic erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orcô in lûcem trahere. Ex Orcô autem nêmô anteâ reverterat. Praetereâ Cerberus erat mônstrum maximê horribile et tria capita habêbat. Herculês postquam imperia Eurystheî accêpit, statim profectus est et in Orcum dêscendit. Ibi vêrô nôn sine summô periculô Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingentî cum labôre ex Orcô in lûcem et adurbem Eurystheî trâxit. Sic duodecim laborês illî[5] intrâ duodecim annôs cônfectî sunt. Dêmum post longam vîtam Herculês â deîs receptus est et Iuppiter fîliô suô dedit immortâlitâtem. [Footnote 4: The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode of the dead.] [Footnote 5: «illî», _those famous._] [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI] P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1] LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE´II P. Cornêlius Lentulus,[2] adulêscêns Rômânus, amplissimâ familiâ[3] nâtus est; nam pater eius, Mârcus, erat dux perîtissimus, cuius virtûte[4] et cônsiliô multae victôriae reportâtae erant; atque mater eius, lûlia, â clârissimîs maiôribus orta est. Nôn vêrô in urbe sed rûrî[5] Pûblius nâtus est, et cum mâtre habitâbat in vîllâ quae in maris lîtore et sub radîcibus magnî montis sita erat. Môns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompêiî octô mîlia[6] passuum[7] aberat. In Italiâ antîquâ erant plûrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hâs omnîs nûlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mârcî Iûliaeque. Frôns vîllae mûrô a maris fluctibus mûniêbâtur. Hinc mare et lîtora et însulae longê lâtêque cônspicî[8] ac saepe nâvês longae et onerâriae poterant.  tergô et ab utrôque latere agrî ferâcissimî patêbant. Undique erat magna variôrum flôrum côpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestâte[9] umbram dêfessîs agricolîs grâtissimam adferêbant. Praetereâ erant[10] in agrîs stabulîsque multa animâlium genera, nôn sôlum equî et bovês sed etiam rârae avês. Etiam erat[10] magna piscîna plêna piscium; nam Rômânî piscîs dîligenter colêbant. [Footnote 1: This story is fiction with certain historical facts in Cæsar's career as a setting. However, the events chronicled might have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.] [Footnote 2: A Roman had three names, as, «Pûblius» (given name), «Cornêlius» (name of the _gêns_ or clan), «Lentulus» (family name).] [Footnote 3: Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of separation (§501.32).] [Footnote 4: «virtûte», §501.24.] [Footnote 5: «rûrî», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 6: «mîlia», §501.21.] [Footnote 7: «passuum», §501.11.] [Footnote 8: «cônspicî», infin. with poterant, §215. Consult the map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.] [Footnote 9: «aestâte», §501.35.] [Footnote 10: How are the forms of «sum» translated when they precede the subject?] [Illustration: CASA ROMANA] LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM Huius vîllae Dâvus, servus Mârcî, est vîlicus[1] et cum Lesbiâ uxôre omnia cûrat. Vîlicus et uxor in casâ humilî, mediîs in agrîs sitâ, habitant.  prîmâ lûce ûsque ad vesperum sê[2] gravibus labôribus exercent ut omnî rês bene gerant.[3] Plûrima enim sunt officia Dâvî et Lesbiae. Vîlicus servôs regit nê tardî sint[3]; mittit aliôs quî agrôs arent,[3] aliôs quî hortôs inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] tôtum diem impônit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestîmenta parat, cibum coquit, pânem facit. Nôn longê ab hôrum casâ et in summô colle situm surgêbat domicilium ipsîus dominî dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi plûrîs annôs[5] Pûblius cum mâtre vîtam fêlîcem agêbat; nam pater eius, Mârcus, in terrîs longinquîs gravia reî pûblicae bella gerêbat nec domum[6] revertî poterat. Neque puerô quidem molestum est rûrî[7] vîvere. Eum multae rês dêlectant. Magnopere amat silvâs, agrôs, equôs, bovês, gallînâs, avîs, reliquaque animâlia. Saepe plûrîs hôrâs[8] ad mare sedet quô[9] melius fluctûs et nâvîs spectet. Nec omnînô sine comitibus erat, quod Lydia, Dâvî fîlia, quae erat eiusdem aetâtis, cum eô adhûc infante lûdêbat, inter quôs cum annîs amîcitia crêscêbat. Lydia nûllum alium ducem dêligêbat et Pûblius ab puellae latere rârô discêdêbat. Itaque sub clârô Italiae sôle Pûblius et Lydia, amîcî fidêlissimî, per campôs collîsque cotîdiê vagâbantur. Modo in silvâ fînitimâ lûdebant ubi Pûblius sagittîs[10] celeribus avis dêiciêbat et Lydia corônîs variôrum flôrum comâs suâs ôrnâbat; modo aquam et cibum portâbant ad Dâvum servôsque dêfessôs quî agrôs colêbant: modo in casâ parvâ aut hôrâs lactâs in lûdô cônsûmêbant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum virô et servîs parâbat vel aliâs rês domesticâs agêbat. [Footnote 1: The «vîlicus» was a slave who acted as overseer of a farm. He directed the farming operations and the sale of the produce.] [Footnote 2: «se», reflexive pron., object of «exercent».] [Footnote 3: For the construction, see §501.40.] [Footnote 4: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 5: «annôs», §501.21.] [Footnote 6: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 7: «rûrî», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 8: «hôrâs», cf. «annôs», line 17.] [Footnote 9: «quô ... spectet», §§349, 350.] [Footnote 10: «sagittis», §501.24.] LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM Iam Pûblius[1] decem annôs habêbat cum M. Cornêlius Lentulus, pater eius, quî quînque annôs[2] grave bellum in Asiâ gerêbat, non sine glôriâ domum[3] revertêbâtur. Namque multa secunda proelia fêcerat, maximâs hostium côpiâs dêlêverat, multâs urbîs populo[4] Rômânô inimîcâs cêperat. Primum nûntius pervênit quî â Lentulô[5] missus erat[6] ut profectiônem suam nûntiâret. Deinde plûrîs diês[7] reditum virî optimî mâter fîliusque exspectâbant et animîs[8] sollicitis deôs immortâlîs frûstrâ colêbant. Tum dêmum hâs litterâs summo cum gaudiô accêpêrunt: [9]"Mârcus Iûliae suac salûtem dîcit. Sî valês, bene est; ego valeô. Ex Graeciâ, quô[10] praeter spem et opîniônem hodiê pervênî, hâs litterâs ad tê scribô. Namque nâvis nostra frâcta est; nôs autem--[11]dîs est gratia--incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae[12] portû nâvem lênî ventô solvimus. Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ûllae terrae appâruêrunt, caelum undique et undique fluctûs, subitô magna tempestâs coorta est et nâvem vehementissimê adflîxit. Ventîs fluctibusque adflîctâtî[15] nec sôlem discernere nec cursum tenêre poterâmus et omnia praesentem mortem intentâbant. Trîs diês[16] et trîs noctîs[16] sine rêmîs vêlîsque agimur. Quârtô diê[17] prîmum terra vîsa est et violenter in saxa, quae nôn longê â lîtore aberant, dêiectî sumus. Tum vêrô maiôra perîcula timêbâmus; sed nauta quîdam, vir fortissimus, ex nâve in fluctûs îrâtôs dêsiluit [18]ut fûnem ad lîtus portâret; quam rem summô labôre vix effêcit. Ita omnês servâtî sumus. Grâtiâs igitur et honôrem Neptûnô dêbêmus, quî deus nôs ê perîculô êripuit. Nunc Athênîs[19] sum, quô cônfûgî ut mihi paucâs hôrâs ad quiêtem darem.[20] Quam prîmum autem aliam nâvem condûcam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum cônficiam et domum[21] ad meôs cârôs revertar. Salûtâ nostrum Pûblium amîcissimê et valêtûdinem tuam cûrâ dîligenter. [22]Kalendîs Mârtiîs." [Footnote 1: _was ten years old_.] [Footnote 2: «annôs», §501.21.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 4: «populô», dat. with inimîcâs, cf. §501.16.] [Footnote 5: «Lentulô», §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... nûntiâret», §501.40.] [Footnote 7: «diês», cf. annôs, 1. 9.] [Footnote 8: «animîs», abl. of manner. Do you see one in line 15?] [Footnote 9: This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin letter. First we have the greeting, and then the expression Sî valês, etc. The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the letter.] [Footnote 10: «quô», _where_.] [Footnote 11: «dîs est grâtia», _thank God_, in our idiom.] [Footnote 12: Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 13: «altum mare tenuimus», _we were well out to sea._] [Footnote 14: «nec iam», _and no longer_.] [Footnote 15: «adflîctâtî», perf. passive part. _tossed about_.] [Footnote 16: What construction?] [Footnote 17: «diê», §501.35.] [Footnote 18: «ut ... portâret», §501.40.] [Footnote 19: «Athênîs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 20: «darem», cf. «portâret», l. 6.] [Footnote 21: Why not «ad domum»?] [Footnote 22: «Kalendîs Mârtiîs», _the Calends_ or _first of March_; abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.] LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER Post paucôs diês nâvis M. Cornêlî Lentulî portum Mîsênî[1] petiit, quî portus nôn longê â Pompêiîs situs est; quô in portû classis Rômânâ pônêbâtur et ad pugnâs nâvâlîs ôrnâbâtur. Ibi nâvês omnium generum cônspicî poterant. Iamque incrêdibilî celeritâte nâvis longa quâ Lentulus vehêbâtur lîtorî adpropinquâvit; nam nôn sôlum ventô sed etiam rêmîs impellêbâtur. In altâ puppe stâbat gubernâtor et nôn procul aliquî mîlitês Rômânî cum armîs splendidîs, inter quôs clârissimus erat Lentulus. Deinde servî rêmîs contendere cessâvêrunt[2]; nautae vêlum contrâxêrunt et ancorâs iêcêrunt. Lentulus statim ê nâvî êgressus est et[3] ad villam suam properâvit. Eum Iûlia, Pûblius, tôtaque familia excêpêrunt. [4]Quî complexûs, quanta gaudia fuêrunt! Postrîdiê eius diêî Lentulus fîliô suô dîxit, "Venî, mî Pûblî, mêcum. Pompêiôs iter hodiê faciam. Mâter tua suâdet[5] ut frûctûs et cibâria emam. Namque plûrîs amîcôs ad cênam vocâvimus et multîs rêbus[6] egêmus. Ea hortâtur ut quam prîmum proficîscâmur." "Libenter, mî pater," inquit Pûblius. "Têcum esse mihi semper est grâtum; nec Pompêiôs umquam vîdî. Sine morâ proficîscî parâtus sum." Tum celeriter currum cônscendêrunt et ad urbis mûrôs vectî sunt. Stabiânâ portâ[7] urbem ingressî sunt. Pûblius strâtâs viâs mîrâtur et saxa altiôra quae in mediô disposita erant et altâs orbitâs quâs rotae inter haec saxa fêcerant. Etiam strepitum mîrâtur, multitûdinem, carrôs, fontîs, domôs, tabernâs, forum[8] cum statuîs, templîs, reliquîsque aedificiîs pûblicîs. [Footnote 1: Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet. See map of Italy.] [Footnote 2: Why is the infinitive used with «cessâvêrunt»?] [Footnote 3: See Plate I, Frontispiece.] [Footnote 4: Observe that these words are exclamatory.] [Footnote 5: What construction follows «suâdeô»? §501.41.] [Footnote 6: «rêbus», §501.32.] [Footnote 7: This is the abl. of the _way by which_ motion takes place, sometimes called the abl. of route. The construction comes under the general head of the abl. of means. For the scene here described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the stepping-stones for crossing the street («saxa quae in mediô disposita erant»).] [Footnote 8: The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public halls, and markets of various sorts. Locate Pompeii on the map.] LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII Apud forum ê currû dêscendêrunt et Lentulus dîxit, "Hîc sunt multa tabernârum genera, mî Pûblî. Ecce, trâns viam est popîna! [1]Hoc genus tabernârum cibâria vêndit. Frûctûs quoque ante iânuam stant. Ibi cibâria mea emam." "Optimê," respondit Pûblius. "At ubi, mî pater, crûstula emere possumus? Namque mâter nôbîs imperâvit [2]ut haec quoque parârêmus. Timeô ut[3] ista popîna vêndat crûstula." "Bene dîcis," inquit Lentulus. "At nônne vidês illum fontem â dextrâ ubi aqua per leônis caput fluit? In illô ipsô locô est taberna pîstôris quî sine dubiô vêndit crûstula." Brevî tempore[4] omnia erant parâta, iamque [5]quînta hôra erat. Deinde Lentulus et fîlius ad caupônam properâvêrunt, quod famê[6] et sitî[7] urgêbantur. Ibi sub arboris umbrâ sêdêrunt et puerô imperâvêrunt ut sibi[8] cibum et vînum daret. Huic imperiô[9] puer celeriter pâruit. Tum laetî sê[10] ex labôre refêcêrunt. Post prandium prefectî sunt ut alia urbis spectâcula vidêrent. Illô tempore fuêrunt Pompêiîs[11] multa templa, duo theâtra, thermae magnumque amphitheâtrum, quae omnia post paucôs annôs flammîs atque incendiîs Vesuvî et terrae môtû dêlêta sunt. Ante hanc calamitâtem autem hominês [12]nihil dê monte veritî sunt. In amphitheâtrô quidem Pûblius morârî cupîvit ut spectâcula gladiâtôria vidêret, quae in[13] illum ipsum diem prôscrîpta erant et iam [14]rê vêrâ incêperant. Sed Lentulus dîxit, "Morârî, Pûblî, [15]vereor ut possîmus. Iam decima hôra est et via est longa. Tempus suâdet ut quam prîmum domum revertâmur." Itaque servô imperâvit ut equôs iungeret, et sôlis occâsû[16] ad vîllam pervênêrunt. [Footnote 1: We say, _this kind of shop_; Latin, _this kind of shops_.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... parârêmus», §501.41.] [Footnote 3: How is «ut» translated after a verb of fearing? How «nê»? Cf. §501.42.] [Footnote 4: «tempore», §501.35.] [Footnote 5: «quînta hôra». The Romans numbered the hours of the day consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long or short, into twelve equal parts.] [Footnote 6: «famê» shows a slight irregularity in that the abl. ending «-e» is long.] [Footnote 7: «sitis», _thirst_, has «-im» in the acc. sing., «-î» in the abl. sing., and no plural.] [Footnote 8: Observe that the reflexive pronoun «sibi» does not here refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands, but to the subject of the main clause. This so-called _indirect_ use of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.] [Footnote 9: What case? Cf. §501.14.] [Footnote 10: «sê», cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 11: «Pompêiîs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 12: «nihil ... veritî sunt», _had no fears of the mountain_.] [Footnote 13: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 14: «rê vêrâ», _in fact_.] [Footnote 15: «vereor ut», §501.42.] [Footnote 16: «occâsû», §501.35.] LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON  prîmîs annîs quidem Iûlia ipsa fîlium suum docuerat, et Pûblius nôn sôlum [1]pûrê et Latînê loquî poterat sed etiam commodê legêbat et scrîbêbat. Iam Ennium[2] aliôsque poêtâs lêgerat. Nunc vêrô Pûblius [3]duodecim annôs habêbat; itaque eî pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum omnî doctrînâ et virtûte ôrnâtissimum, parâvit, [5]quî Graeca, mûsicam, aliâsque artîs docêret. [6]Namque illîs temporibus omnês ferê gentês Graecê loquêbantur. Cum Pûbliô aliî puerî, Lentulî amîcôrum fîliî,[7] discêbant. Nam saepe apud Rômânôs môs erat [8]nôn in lûdum fîliôs mittere sed domî per magistrum docêre. Cotîdiê discipulî cum magistrô in peristylô[9] Mârcî domûs sedêbant. Omnês puerî bullam auream, orîginis honestae signum, in collô gerêbant, et omnês togâ praetextâ amictî erant, [10]quod nôndum sêdecim annôs[11] nâtî sunt. [Footnote 1: «pûrê ... poterat», freely, _could speak Latin well_. What is the literal translation?] [Footnote 2: «Ennium», the father of Latin poetry.] [Footnote 3: «duodecim ... habêbat», cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.] [Footnote 4: «virum», etc., _a very well-educated and worthy man_. Observe the Latin equivalent.] [Footnote 5: «quî ... docêret», a relative clause of purpose. Cf. §§ 349, 350.] [Footnote 6: In Cæsar's time Greek was spoken more widely in the Roman world than any other language.] [Footnote 7: «fîliî», in apposition with «puerî».] [Footnote 8: «nôn ... mittere». This infinitive clause is the subject of «erat». Cf. §216. The same construction is repeated in the next clause, «domî ... docêre». The object of «docêre» is «fîliôs» understood.] [Footnote 9: The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a colonnade.] [Footnote 10: At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the _bulla_ and the _toga praetexta_ and assumed _toga virîlis_ or manly gown.] [Footnote 11: «annôs», §501.21. The expression «nôndum sêdecim annôs nâtî sunt» means literally, _they were born not yet sixteen years_. This is the usual expression for age. What is the English equivalent?] [Illustration: TABULA ET STILUS] SCENE IN SCHOOL · AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION DISCIPULÎ. Salvê, magister. MAGISTER. Vôs quoque omnês, salvête. [1]Tabulâsne portâvistis et stilôs? D. Portâvimus. M. Iam fâbulam Aesôpî[2] discêmus. Ego legam, vôs in tabulîs scrîbite. Et tû, Pûblî, dâ mihi ê capsâ[3] Aesôpî volûmen.[4] Iam audîte omnês: _Vulpês et Ûva_. Vulpês ôlim famê coâcta ûvam dêpendentem vîdit. Ad ûvam saliêbat, sûmere cônâns. Frûstrâ diû cônâta, tandem îrâta erat et salîre cessâns dîxit: "Illa ûva est acerba; acerbam ûvam [5]nihil moror." Omnia´ne scrîpsistis, puerî? D. Omnia, magister. [Footnote 1: Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax. The writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil, made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end. The knob was used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.] [Footnote 2: «Aesôpî», the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of the fables current in the ancient world.] [Footnote 3: A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped like a hatbox.] [Footnote 4: Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy´rus.] [Footnote 5: «nihil moror», _I care nothing for_.] LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION Iamque Pûblius, [1]quîndecim annôs nâtus, [2]prîmîs litterârum elementîs cônfectîs, Rômam petere voluit ut scholâs grammaticôrum et philosophôrum frequentâret. Et facillimê patrî[3] suô, qui ipse philosophiae studiô tenêbâtur, persuâsit. Itaque [4]omnibus rêbus ad profectiônem comparâtîs, pater fîliusque equîs animôsîs vectî[5] ad magnam urbem profectî sunt. Eôs proficîscentîs Iûlia tôtaque familia vôtîs precibusque prôsecûtae sunt. Tum per loca[6] plâna et collis silvîs vestîtôs viam ingressî sunt ad Nôlam, quod oppidum eôs hospitiô modicô excêpit. Nôlae[7] duâs hôrâs morâtî sunt, quod sôl merîdiânus ârdêbat. Tum rêctâ viâ[8] circiter vîgintî mîlia[9] passuum[9] Capuam,[9] ad însignem Campâniae urbem, contendêrunt. Eô[10] multâ nocte dêfessî pervênêrunt. [11]Postrîdiê eius diêî, somnô et cibô recreâtî, Capuâ discessêrunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressî, quae Capuam tangit et ûsque ad urbem Rômam dûcit, ante merîdiem Sinuessam pervênêrunt, quod oppidum tangit mare. Inde prîmâ lûce proficîscentês Formiâs[13] properâvêrunt, ubi Cicerô, ôrâtor clarissimus, quî forte apud vîllam suam erat, eôs benignê excêpit. Hinc [14]itinere vîgintî quînque mîlium passuum factô, Tarracînam, oppidum in saxîs altissimîs situm, vîdêrunt. Iamque nôn longê aberant palûdês magnae, quae multa mîlia passuum undique patent. Per eâs pedestris via est gravis et in nâve viâtôrês vehuntur. Itaque [15]equîs relictîs Lentulus et Pûblius nâvem cônscendêrunt, et, ûnâ nocte in trânsitû cônsûmptâ, Forum Appî vênêrunt. Tum brevî tempore Arîcia eôs excêpit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Româ sêdecim mîlia passuum abest. Inde dêclivis via ûsque ad latum campum dûcit ubi Rôma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Pûblius vênit et Rômam adhûc remôtam, maximam tôtîus orbis terrârum urbem, cônspêxit, summâ admîrâtiône et gaudiô adfectus est. Sine morâ dêscendêrunt, et, mediô intervâllô quam celerrimê superâtô, urbem portâ Capênâ ingressî sunt. [Footnote 1: «quîndecim», etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 2: «prîmîs ... cônfectîs», abl. abs. Cf. §501.28.] [Footnote 3: «patrî», dat. with «persuâsit».] [Footnote 4: «omnibus ... comparâtîs», cf. note 2.] [Footnote 5: «vectî», perf. pass. part. of «vehô».] [Footnote 6: What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?] [Footnote 7: «Nôlae», locative case, §501.36.2.] [Footnote 8: «viâ», cf. «portâ», p. 208, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 9: What construction?] [Footnote 10: «Eô», adv. _there_.] [Footnote 11: «Postrîdiê eius diêî», _on the next day_.] [Footnote 12: «viam Appiam», the most famous of all Roman roads, the great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous branches. Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in the lines that follow.] [Footnote 13: «Formiâs», _Formiæ_, one of the most beautiful spots on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.] [Footnote 14: «itinere ... factô», abl. abs. The gen. «mîlium» modifies «itinere».] [Footnote 15: «equîs relictîs». What construction? Point out a similar one in the next line.] [Illustration: BULLA] LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS Pûblius iam tôtum annum Rômae morâbâtur[1] multaque urbis spectâcula vîderat et multôs sibi[2] amîcôs parâverat. Eî[3] omnês favêbant; [4]dê eô omnês bene spêrâre poterant. Cotîdiê Pûblius scholas philosophôrum et grammaticôrum tantô studiô frequentâbat [5]ut aliîs clârum exemplum praebêret. Saepe erat cum patre in cûriâ[6]; quae rês effêcit [7]ut summôs reî pûblicae virôs et audîret et vidêret. Ubi [8]sêdecim annôs natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam môre Rômânô dêposuit atque virîlem togam sûmpsit. Virîlis autem toga erat omnînô alba, sed praetexta clâvum purpureum in margine habêbat. [10]Dêpônere togam praetextam et sûmere togam virîlem erat rês grâtissima puerô Rômânô, quod posteâ vir et cîvis Rômânus habêbâtur. [11]Hîs rêbus gestîs Lentulus ad uxôrem suam hâs litterâs scrîpsit: [12]"Mârcus Iûliae suae salûtem dîcit. Sî valês, bene est; ego valeô. Accêpî tuâs litterâs. Hâs nunc Rômâ per servum fidêlissimum mittô ut dê Pûbliô nostrô quam celerrimê sciâs. Nam hodiê eî togam virîlem dedî. Ante lucem surrêxî[13] et prîmum bullam auream dê collô eius remôvî. Hâc Laribus[14] cônsecrâtâ et sacrîs factîs, eum togâ virîlî vestîvî. Interim plûrês amîcî cum multitûdine optimôrum cîvium et honestôrum clientium pervênerant [15]quî Pûblium domô in forum dêdûcerent. Ibi in cîvitâtem receptus est et nômen, Pûblius Cornêlius Lentulus, apud cîvîs Rômânôs ascrîptum est. Omnês eî amîcissimî fuêrunt et magna[16] de eô praedîcunt. Sapientior enim aequâlibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet. [18]Cûrâ ut valeâs." [Footnote 1: «morâbâtur», translate as if pluperfect.] [Footnote 2: «sibi», _for himself_.] [Footnote 3: «Eî», why dat.?] [Footnote 4: «dê ... poterant», in English, _all regarded him as a very promising youth;_ but what does the Latin say?] [Footnote 5: «ut ... praebêret», §501.43.] [Footnote 6: «cûriâ», a famous building near the Roman Forum.] [Footnote 7: «ut ... audîret et vidêret», §501.44.] [Footnote 8: «sêdecim, etc.», cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 9: «bullam», cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.] [Footnote 10: These infinitive clauses are the subject of «erat». Cf. §216.] [Footnote 11: «Hîs rêbus gestîs», i.e. the assumption of the _toga virilis_ and attendant ceremonies.] [Footnote 12: Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on page 206.] [Footnote 13: «surrêxî», from «surgô».] [Footnote 14: The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were worshiped as household gods. All that the house contained was confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.] [Footnote 15: «quî ... dêdûcerent», §350.] [Footnote 16: «magna», _great things_, a neuter adj. used as a noun.] [Footnote 17: «aequâlibus», §501.34.] [Footnote 18: «Cûrâ ut valeâs», _take good care of your health_. How does the Latin express this idea?] LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CÆSAR'S ARMY IN GAUL Pûblius iam adulêscêns postquam togam virîlem sûmpsit, aliîs rêbus studêre incêpit et praesertim ûsû[1] armôrum sê[2] dîligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amâvit illâs artîs quae mîlitârem animum dêlectant. Iamque erant [3]quî eî cursum mîlitârem praedîcerent. Nec sine causâ, quod certê patris îsigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahêbat. [5]Paucîs ante annîs C. Iûlius Caesar, ducum Rômânôrum maximus, cônsul creâtus erat et hôc tempore in Galliâ bellum grave gerêbat. Atque in exercitû eius plûrês adulêscentês mîlitâbant, apud quôs erat amîcus quîdam Pûblî. Ille Pûblium crêbrîs litterîs vehementer hortâbâtur [6]ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pûblius recûsâvit, et, multîs amîcîs ad portam urbis prôsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quârtô diê postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpîs, montîs altissimôs, pervênit. Hîs summâ difficultâte superâtîs, tandem Gallôrum in fînibus erat. Prîmô autem veritus est ut[7] castrîs Rômânîs adpropinquâre posset, quod Gallî, maximîs côpiîs coâctîs, Rômânôs obsidêbant et viâs omnîs iam clauserant. Hîs rêbus commôtus Pûblius vestem Gallicam induit nê â Gallîs caperêtur, et ita per hostium côpiâs incolumis ad castra pervenîre potuit. Intrâ mûnîtiônes acceptus, â Caesare benignê exceptus est. Imperâtor fortem adulêscentem amplissimîs verbîs laudâvit et eum [8]tribûnum mîlîtum creâvit. [Footnote 1: Abl. of means.] [Footnote 2: «sê», reflexive object of «exercuit».] [Footnote 3: «quî ... praedîcerent», §501.45.] [Footnote 4: «ita multum trahêbat», _had a great influence in that direction_.] [Footnote 5: «Paucîs ante annîs», _a few years before_; in Latin, _before by a few years_, «ante» being an adverb and «annîs» abl. of degree of difference.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... faceret», §501.41.] [Footnote 7: «ut», how translated here? See §501.42.] [Footnote 8: The _military tribune_ was a commissioned officer nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel. The tribunes were often inexperienced men, so Cæsar did not allow them much responsibility.] [Illustration: IMPEDIMENTA] HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED Exercitus quî in hostium fînibus bellum genit multîs perîcuîs circumdatus est. [1]Quae perîcula ut vîtâret, Rômâni summam cûram adhîbêre solêbant. Adpropinquanteês côpiîs hostium agmen ita dispônêbant [2]ut imperâtor ipse cum plâribus legiônibus expedîtîs[3] prîmum agmen dûceret. Post eâs côpiâs impedîmenta[4] tôtîus exercitûs conlocâbant. [5]Tum legiônês quae proximê cônscrîptae erant tôtum agmen claudêbant. Equitês quoque in omnîs partîs dîmittêbantur quî loca explôrârent; et centuriônês praemittêbantur ut locum castrîs idôneum dêligerent. Locus habêbatur idôneus castrîs [6]quî facile dêfendî posset et prope aquam esset. Quâ dê causâ castra[7] in colle ab utrâque parte arduô, â fronte lêniter dêclîvî saepe pônêbantur; vel locus palûdibus cînctus vel in flûminis rîpîs situs dêligêbâtur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervênit, aliî mîlitum [8]in armîs erant, aliî castra mûnîre incipiêbant. Nam [9]quô tûtiôrês ab hostibus mîlitês essent, nêve incautî et imparâtî opprimerentur, castra fossâ lâtâ et vâllô altô mûniêbant. In castrîs portae quattuor erant ut êruptiô mîlitum omnîs in partîs fierî posset. In angulîs castrôrum erant turrês dê quibus têla in hostîs coniciêbantur. [10]Tâlibus in castrîs quâlia dêscrîpsimus Pûblius â Caesare exceptus est. [Footnote 1: «Quae perîcula», object of «vîtârent». It is placed first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... dûceret», §501.43.] [Footnote 3: «expedîtîs», i.e. without baggage and ready for action.] [Footnote 4: «impedîmenta». Much of the baggage was carried in carts and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each soldier (unless «expedîtus») carried a heavy pack. See also picture, p. 159.] [Footnote 5: The newest legions were placed in the rear, because they were the least reliable.] [Footnote 6: «quî ... posset ... esset», §501.45.] [Footnote 7: «castra», subject of «pônêbantur».] [Footnote 8: «in armîs erant», _stood under arms_.] [Footnote 9: «quô ... essent». When is «quô» used to introduce a purpose clause? See §350.I.] [Footnote 10: «Tâlibus in castrîs quâlia», _in such a camp as_. It is important to remember the correlatives «tâlis ... quâlis», _such ... as_.] [Illustration: CENTURIO] LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS Illîs in castrîs erant duo centuriônês,[1] fortissimî virî, T. Pullô et L. Vorênus, quôrum neuter alterî virtûte[2] cêdere volêbat. Inter eôs iam multôs annôs înfênsum certâmen gerêbâtur. Tum dêmum fînis contrôversiae hôc modô[3] factus est. Diê tertiô postquam Pûblius pervênit, hostês, maiôribus côpiîs coâctîs, âcerrimum impetum in castra fêcêrunt. Tum Pullô, [4]cum Rômânî tardiôrês[5] vidêrentur, "Cûr dubitâs," inquit, "Vorêne? Quam commodiôrem occâsiônem exspectâs? Hic diês dê virtûte nostrâ iûdicâbit." Haec[6] cum dîxisset, extrâ mûnîtiônês prôcessit et in eam hostium partem quae côfertissima [7]vidêbâtur inrûpit. Neque Vorênus quidem tum vâllô[8] sêsê continet, sed Pullônem subsequitur. Tum Pullô pîlum in hostîs immittit atque ûnum ex multitûdine prôcurrentem trâicit. Hunc percussum et exanimâtum hostês scûtîs prôtegunt et in Pullônem omnês têla coniciunt. Eius scûtum trânsfîgitur et têlum in balteô dêfîgitur. Hic câsus vâgînam âvertit et dextram manum eius gladium êdûcere cônantis[9] morâtur. Eum ita impedîtum hostês circumsistunt. Tum vêro [10]eî labôrantî Vorênus, cum sit inimîcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cônfestim [11]â Pullône omnis multitûdô sê convertit. Gladiô comminus pugnat Vorênus, atque, ûnô interfectô, reliquôs paulum prôpellit. Sed înstâns cupidius[12] înfêlîx, [13]pede sê fallente, concidit. Huic rûrsus circumventô auxilium dat Pullô, atque ambô incolumês, plûribus interfectîs, summâ cum laude intrâ mûnîtiônês sê recipiunt. Sic inimîcôrum alter alterî auxilium dedit nec de eôrum virtûte quisquam iûdicâre potuit. [Footnote 1: A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men. He was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his courage and fighting qualities. The centurions were the real leaders of the men in battle. There were sixty of them in a legion. The centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.] [Footnote 2: «virtûte», §501.30.] [Footnote 3: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 4: «cum ... vidêrentur», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «tardiôrês», _too slow_, a not infrequent translation of the comparative degree.] [Footnote 6: «Haec», obj. of «dîxisset». It is placed before «cum» to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. What is the construction of «dîxisset»?] [Footnote 7: «vidêbatur, inrûpit». Why is the imperfect used in one case and the perfect in the other? Cf. §190.] [Footnote 8: «vâllô», abl. of means, but in English we should say _within the rampart_. Cf. «ingentî stabulô», p. 201, l. 13, and note.] [Footnote 9: «cônantis», pres. part. agreeing with «eius».] [Footnote 10: «eî labôrantî», indir. obj. of dat.] [Footnote 11: «â Pullône», _from Pullo_, abl. of separation.] [Footnote 12: «cupidius», _too eagerly_.] [Footnote 13: «pede sê fallente», lit. _the foot deceiving itself_; in our idiom, _his foot slipping_.] LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED Cum iam sex hôrâs pugnatum esset[1] ac nôn sôlum vîrês sed etiam têla Rômânôs dêficerent[1], atque hostês âcrius instârent,[1] et vâllum scindere fossamque complêre incêpissent,[1] Caesar, vir reî mîlitâris perîtissimus, suîs imperâvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2] et, signô datô, ex castrîs êrumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussî sunt faciunt, et subitô ex omnibus portîs êrumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mîlitês concurrêrunt et tam propinquî erant hostês[4] ut spatium pîla coniciendî[5] nôn darêtur. Itaque reiectîs pîlîs [6]comminus gladiîs pugnâtum est. Diû et audâcter hostês restitêrunt et in extrêmâ spê salûtis tantam virtûtem praestitêrunt ut â dextrô cornû vehementer [7]multitûdine suôrum aciem Rômanam premerent. [8]Id imperâtor cum animadvertisset, Pûblium adulêscentem cum equitâtû mîsit quî labôrantibus[9] auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinêre nôn potuêrunt hostês[10] et omnês terga vertêrunt. Eôs in fugam datôs Pûblius subsecûtus est ûsque ad flûmen Rhênum, quod ab eô locô quînque mîlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucî salûtem sibi repperêrunt. Omnibus reliquîs interfectîs, Pûblius et equitês in castra sêsê recêpêrunt. Dê hâc calamitâte fînitimae gentês cum certiôrês factae essent, ad Caesarem lêgâtôs mîsêrunt et sê suaque omnia dêdidêrunt. [Footnote 1: «pugnâtum esset, dêficerent, înstârent, incêpissent». These are all subjunctives with «cum». Cf. §501.46.] [Footnote 2: «intermitterent, êrumperent». What use of the subjunctive?] [Footnote 3: «Quod», etc., _they do as ordered_. The antecedent of «quod» is «id» understood, which would be the object of «faciunt».] [Footnote 4: «ut ... darêtur». Is this a clause of purpose or of result?] [Footnote 5: «coniciendî», §402.] [Footnote 6: «comminus gladiîs pugnâtum est», _a hand-to-hand conflict was waged with swords_.] [Footnote 7: «multitûdine suôrum», _by their numbers_. «suôrum» is used as a noun. What is the literal translation of this expression?] [Footnote 8: «Id imperâtor. Id» is the obj. and «imperâtor» the subj. of «animadvertisset».] [Footnote 9: «labôrantibus». This participle agrees with «iîs» understood, the indir. obj. of «daret; qui ... daret» is a purpose clause, §501.40.] [Footnote 10: «hostês», subj. of «potuêrunt».] LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS Initâ aestâte Caesar litterîs certior fîêbat et per explôrâtôrês cognôscêbat plûrîs cîvitâtês Galliae novîs rêbus studêre,[1] et contrâ populum Rômânum coniûrâre[1] obsidêsque [2]inter sê dare,[1] atque cum hîs Germânôs quôsdam quoque sêsê coniûnctûrôs esse.[1] Hîs litterîs nûntiîsque commôtus Caesar cônstituit quam celerrimê in Gallôs proficîscî,[3] ut eôs inopînantîs opprimeret, et Labiênum lêgâtum cum duâbus legiônibus peditum et duôbus mîlibus equitum in Germânôs mittere.[3] [4]Itaque rê frûmentâriâ comparâtâ castra môvit. Ab utrôque[5] rês bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fînîs pervênit ut spatium [6]côpiâs côgendî nôn darêtur[4]; et Labiênus dê Germânîs tam grave supplicium sûmpsit ut nêmô ex eâ gente in reliquum tempus Gallîs auxilium dare audêret.[7] Hoc iter in Germâniam Pûblius quoque fêcit et, [8]cum ibi morârêtur, multa mîrâbilia vîdit. Praesertim vêrô ingentem silvam mîrâbâtur, quae tantae magnitûdinis esse dîcêbâtur [9]ut nêmô eam trânsîre posset, nec quisquam scîret aut initium aut fînem. Quâ dê rê plûra cognôverat â mîlite quôdam quî ôlim captus â Germânîs multôs annôs ibi incoluit. Ille[10] dê silvâ dîcêns, "Înfînîtae magnitûdinis est haec silva," inquit; "nee quisquam est [11]huius Germâniae [12]quî initium eius sciat aut ad fînem adierit. Nâscuntur illîc multa tâlia animâlium genera quâlia reliquîs in locîs nôn inveniuntur. Sunt bovês quî ûnum[13] cornû habent; sunt etiam animâlia quae appellantur alcês. Hae nûllôs crûrum[14] articulôs habent. Itaque, sî forte concidêrunt, sêsê êrigere nûllô modô possunt. Arborês habent prô[15] cubîlibus; ad eâs sê applicant atque ita reclînâtae quiêtem capiunt. Tertium est genus eôrum quî ûrî appellantur. Hî sunt paulô minôrês elephantîs.[16] Magna vis eôrum est et magna vêlôcitâs. Neque hominî neque ferae parcunt.[17]" [Footnote 1: Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect statements after «certior fîêbat», _he was informed_, and «cognôscêbat», _he learned_. Cf. §501.48, 49.] [Footnote 2: «inter sê», _to each other_.] [Footnote 3: «proficîscî, mittere». These infinitives depend upon «cônstituit».] [Footnote 4: Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided. Every fifteen days grain was distributed. Each soldier received about two pecks. This he carried in his pack, and this constituted his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.] [Footnote 5: Abl. of personal agent, §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «côpiâs côgendî», §501.37.1.] [Footnote 7: «darêtur, audêret», §501.43. «audêret» is not from «audiô».] [Footnote 8: «cum ... morârêtur», §501.46.] [Footnote 9: «ut ... posset, ... scîret», §501.43.] [Footnote 10: «Ille», subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 11: «huius Germâniae», _of this part of Germany_.] [Footnote 12: «quî ... scîat ... adierit», §501.45.] [Footnote 13: «ûnum», _only one_.] [Footnote 14: «crûrum», from «crûs».] [Footnote 15: «prô», _for, in place of_.] [Footnote 16: «elephantîs», §501.34.] [Footnote 17: «parcunt». What case is used with this verb?] [Illustration: VINEA] LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY Pûblius plûrîs diês in Germâniâ morâtus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sê contulit. Ille quia molestê ferêbat Gallôs[2] eius regiônis obsidês dare recûsâvisse et exercituî frûmentum praebêre nôluisse, cônstituit eîs[3] bellum înferre. Agrîs vâstâtîs, vîcîs incênsîs, pervênit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nâtûrâ et arte mûnîtum erat. Cingêbâtur mûrô vîgintî quînque pedês[4] altô.  lateribus duôsitum, praeruptô fastîgiô ad plânitiem vergêgat; â quârtô tantum[5] latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnâre, [6]cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cônstituit Caesar. Et castrîs mûnîtîs Pûbliô negôtium dedit ut rês [7]ad oppugnandum necessâriâs parâret. Rômânôrum autem oppugnâtiô est haec.[8] Prîmum turrês aedificantur quibus mîlitês in summum mûrum êvâdere possint[9]; vîneae[10] fîunt quibus têctî mîlitês ad mûrum succêdant; pluteî[11] parantur post quôs mîlitês tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietês quî mûrum et portâs discutiant. Hîs omnibus rêbus comparâtîs, deinde [13]agger ab eâ parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vîneîs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prômovêtur; arietibus quî sub vîneîs conlocâtî erant mûrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistîs, catapultîs, reliquîsque tormentîs lapidês et têla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrêmô cum iam turris et agger altitûdinem mûrî adaequant et arietês moenia perfrêgêrunt,[14] signô datô mîlitês inruunt et oppidum expugnant. [Footnote 1: «morâtus». Is this part. active or passive in meaning?] [Footnote 2: «Gallôs», subj. acc. of the infins. «recûsâvisse» and «nôluisse». The indirect statement depends upon «molestê ferêbat».] [Footnote 3: «eîs», §501.15.] [Footnote 4: «pedês», §501.21.] [Footnote 5: «tantum», adv. _only_.] [Footnote 6: «cum ... esset», a clause of concession, §501.46.] [Footnote 7: «ad oppugnandum», a gerund expressing purpose.] [Footnote 8: «haec», _as follows_.] [Footnote 9: «possint», subjv. of purpose. Three similar constructions follow.] [Footnote 10: «vîneae». These «vîneae» were wooden sheds, open in front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a fortification. They were about eight feet high, of like width, and double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.] [Footnote 11: «pluteî», large screens or shields with small wheels attached to them. These were used to protect besiegers while moving up to a city or while serving the engines of war.] [Footnote 12: «tormenta». The engines of war were chiefly the catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling large stones. They had a range of about two thousand feet and were very effective.] [Footnote 13: The «agger», or mound, was of chief importance in a siege. It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy, and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked. At the same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the top of the wall, or even higher. It was made of earth and timber, and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the besiegers. Over or beside the _agger_ a tower was moved up to the wall, often with a battering-ram (_aries_) in the lowest story. (See picture, p. 221.)] [Footnote 14: «perfrêgêrunt», from «perfringô».] [Illustration: BALLISTA] [Illustration: TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA] LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED Omnibus rêbus necessâriîs ad oppugnandum â Pûbliô comparâtîs, dêlîberâtur in conciliô quod cônsilium [1]oppidî expugnandî ineant.[2] Tum ûnus[3] ex centuriônibus, vir reî mîlitâris perîtissimus, "Ego suâdeô," inquit, "ut ab eâ parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem exstruâmus[4] et turrim prômoveâmus[6] atque ariete admôtô simul mûrum discutere cônêmur.[5]" [6]Hoc cônsilium cum omnibus placêret, Caesar concilium dîmîsit. Deinde mîlitês hortâtus ut priôrês victôriâs memoriâ[7] tenêrent, iussit aggerem exstruî, turrim et arietem admovêrî. Neque oppidânîs[8] cônsilium dêfuit. Aliî ignem et omne genus têlôrum dê mûrô in turrim coniêcêrunt, aliî ingentia saxa in vîneâs et arietem dêvolvêrunt. Diû utrimque âcerrimê pugnâtum est. Nê vulnerâtî quidem pedem rettulêrunt. Tandem, [9]dê tertiâ vigiliâ, Pûblius, quem Caesar illî operî[10] praefêcerat, nûntiâvit partem[11] mûrî ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quâ rê audîtâ Caesar signum dat; mîlitês inruunt et magnâ cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt. Postrîdiê eius diêî, hôc oppidô expugnâtô, [12]captîvôrum quî nôbilissimî sunt ad imperâtôrem ante praetôrium[13] addûcuntur. Ipse, lôrîcâ aurâtâ et paludâmentô purpureô însignis, captîvôs per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vôs quî estis[15]? INTERPRES. Rogat imperâtor quî sîtis. CAPTÎVÎ. Fîliî rêgis sumus. INTERPRES. Dîcunt sê fîliôs esse rêgis. IMPERÂTOR. Cûr mihi tantâs iniûriâs intulistis? INTERPRES. Rogat cûr sibi tantâs iniûriâs intuleritis. CAPTÎVÎ. Iniûriâs eî nôn intulimus sed prô patriâ bellum gessimus. Semper voluimus Rômânîs esse amîcî, sed Rômânî sine causâ nôs domô patriâque expellere cônâtî sunt. INTERPRES. [16]Negant sê iniûriâs tibi intulisse, sed prô patriâ bellum gessisse. [17]Semper sê voluisse amîcôs Rômânîs esse, sed Rômânôs sine causâ sê domô patriâque expellere cônâtôs esse. IMPERÂTOR. [18]Manêbitisne in reliquum tempus in fidê, hâc rebelliône condônâtâ? Tum vêrô captîvî multîs cum lacrimîs iûrâvêrunt sê in fidê mânsûrôs esse, et Caesar eôs incolumîs domum dîmîsit. [Footnote 1: «oppidî expugnandî». Is this a gerund or a gerundive construction? Cf. §501.37.] [Footnote 2: «ineant». §501.50.] [Footnote 3: «ûnus». subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 4: «sit». This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction, which means that the clause beginning with «ubi» stands in such close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with «ut», that its verb is attracted into the same mood.] [Footnote 5: All these verbs are in the same construction.] [Footnote 6: «Hoc cônsilium», subj. of «placêret». For the order cf. «Haec cum», etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; «Id imperâtor cum», p. 217, l. 8.] [Footnote 7: «memoriâ», abl. of means.] [Footnote 8: «oppidânîs», §501.15.] [Footnote 9: Between twelve and three o'clock in the morning. The night was divided into four watches.] [Footnote 10: «operî», §501.15.] [Footnote 11: «partem», subj. acc. of «concidisse».] [Footnote 12: «captîvôrum ... sunt», _the noblest of the captives_.] [Footnote 13: The general's headquarters.] [Footnote 14: Study carefully these direct questions, indirect questions, and indirect statements.] [Footnote 15: See Plate III, p. 148.] [Footnote 16: «Negant», etc., _they say that they have not_, etc. «Negant» is equivalent to «dîcunt nôn», and the negative modifies «intulisse», but not the remainder of the indirect statement.] [Footnote 17: «Semper», etc., _that they have always_, etc.] [Footnote 18: «Manêbitisne in fidê», _will you remain loyal?_] LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA Nê cônfectô[1] quidem bellô Gallicô, [2]bellum cîvîle inter Caesarem et Pompêium exortum est. Nam Pompêius, quî summum imperium petêbat, senâtuî persuâserat ut Caesarem reî pûblicae hostem[3] iûdicâret et exercitum eius dîmittî iubêret. Quibus cognitîs rêbus Caesar exercitum suum dîmittere recûsâvit, atque, hortâtus mîlitês ut ducem totiêns victôrem ab inimîcôrum iniûriîs dêfenderent, imperâvit ut sê Rômam sequerentur. Summâ cum alacritâte mîlitês pâruêrunt, et trânsitô Rubicône[4] initium bellî cîvîlis factum est. Italiae urbês quidem omnês ferê [5]rêbus Caesaris favêbant et eum benignê excêpêrunt. Quâ rê commôtus Pompêius ante Caesaris adventum Rômâ excessit et Brundisium[6] pervênit, inde [7]paucîs post diêbus cum omnibus côpiîs ad Êpîrum mare trânsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiônibus et quîngentîs equitibus secûtus est, et însignis inter Caesaris comitâtum erat Pûblius. Plûribus leviôribus proeliîs factîs, tandem côpiae adversae ad Pharsâlum[8] in Thessaliâ sitam castra posuêrunt. Cum Pompeî exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multî quî veterânâs legiônês quae Gallôs et Germânôs superâverant vehementer timêbant. Quôs[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labiênus[11] lêgâtus, quî ab Caesare nûper dêfêcerat, ita adlocûtus est: "[12]Nôlîte exîstimâre hunc esse exercitum veterânôrum mîlitum. Omnibus interfuî proeliîs[13] neque temerê incognitam rem prônûntiô. Perexigua pars illîus exercitûs quî Gallôs superâvit adhûc superest. Magna pars occîsa est, multî domum discessêrunt, multî sunt relictî in Italiâ. Hae côpiae quâs vidêtis in [14]citeriôre Galliâ nûper cônscrîptae sunt." Haec[15] cum dîxisset, iûrâvit sê nisi victôrem in castra nôn reversûrum esse. [16]Hoc idem Pompêius et omnês reliquî iûrâvêrunt, et magnâ spê et laetitiâ, sîcut certam ad victôriam, côpiae ê castrîs exiêrunt. Item Caesar, animô[17] ad dîmicandum parâtus, exercitum suum êdûxit et septem cohortibus [18]praesidiô castrîs relictîs côpiâs triplicî aciê înstrûxit. Tum, mîlitibus studiô pugnae ârdentibus, tubâ signum dedit. Mîlitês prôcurrêrunt et pîlîs missîs gladiôs strînxêrunt. Neque vêrô virtûs hostibus dêfuit. Nam et têla missa sustinuêrunt et impetum gladiôrum excêpêrunt et ôrdinês cônservâvêrunt. Utrimque diû et âcriter pugnâtum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitês Pompêî aciem Caesaris circumîre cônâtî sunt. Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quiêta fuerat, prôcurrere iussit. Tum vêrô integrôrum impetum[21] dêfessî hostês sustinêre nôn potuêrunt et omnês terga vertêrunt. Sed Pompêius dê fortûnîs suîs dêspêrâns sê in castra equô contulit, inde mox cum paucîs equitibus effûgit. [Footnote 1: With «nê ... quidem» the emphatic word stands between the two.] [Footnote 2: The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry between Cæsar and Pompey. It resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Pompey and the elevation of Cæsar to the lordship of the Roman world.] [Footnote 3: «hostem», predicate accusative, §501.22.] [Footnote 4: The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that marked the boundary of Cæsar's province. By crossing it with an armed force Cæsar declared war upon Pompey and the existing government. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.] [Footnote 5: «rêbus Caesaris favêbant», _favored Cæsar's side_. In what case is «rêbus»?] [Footnote 6: «Brundisium», a famous port in southern Italy whence ships sailed for Greece and the East. See map.] [Footnote 7: «paucîs post diêbus», _a few days later_; literally, _afterguards by a few days_. Cf. «paucîs ante annîs», p. 213, l. 12, and note.] [Footnote 8: The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C. In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.] [Footnote 9: «Quôs», obj. of «adlocûtus est».] [Footnote 10: «ante proelium commissum», _before the beginning of the battle_.] [Footnote 11: «Labiênus», Cæsar's most faithful and skillful lieutenant in the Gallic War. On the outbreak of the Civil War, in 49 B.C., he deserted Cæsar and joined Pompey. His defection caused the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of importance. He fought against his old commander in several battles and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.] [Footnote 12: «Nôlîte exîstimâre», _don´t think_.] [Footnote 13: «proeliîs», §501.15.] [Footnote 14: «citeriôre Galliâ». This name is applied to Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.] [Footnote 15: «Haec», obj. of «dîxisset».] [Footnote 16: «Hoc idem», obj. of «iûrâvêrunt».] [Footnote 17: «animô», §501.30.] [Footnote 18: «praesidiô castrîs», §501.17.] [Footnote 19: «Quod», obj. of «animadvertit».] [Footnote 20: «aciem», subj. of «prôcurrere».] [Footnote 21: «impetum», obj. of «sustinêre».] [Illustration: SIGNIFER] LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR Pompêiô amîcîsque eius superâtîs atque omnibus hostibus ubîque victîs, Caesar imperâtor Rômam rediit et [1]extrâ moenia urbis in campô Mârtiô castra posuit. Tum vêrô amplissimîs honôribus adfectus est. Dictâtor creâtus est, et eî triumphus â senâtû est dêcrêtus. [2]Quô diê de Gallîs triumphum êgit, tanta multitûdô hominum in urbem undique cônflûxit [3]ut omnia loca essent cônferta. Templa patêbant, ârae fûmâbant, columnae sertîs ôrnâtae erant. [4]Cum vêrô pompa urbem intrâret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prîmum per portam ingressî sunt senâtus et magistrâtûs. Secûtî sunt tîbîcinês, signiferî, peditês laureâ corônâtî canentês: "Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quî subêgit Galliam," et "Mîlle, mîlle, mîlle, mîlle Gallôs trucîdâvimus." Multî praedam captârum urbium portâbant, arma, omnia bellî înstrûmenta. Secûtî sunt equitês, animôsîs atque splendidissimê ôrnâtîs equîs vectî, inter quôs Pûblius adulêscêns fortissimus habêbâtur. Addûcêbantur taurî, arietês, [5]quî dîs immortâlibus immolârentur. Ita longô agmine prôgrediêns exercitus [6]sacrâ viâ per forum in Capitôlium perrêxit. Imperâtor ipse cum urbem intrâret, undique laetô clâmôre multitûdinis salûtâtus est. Stâbat in currû aureô quem quattuor albî equî vehêbant. Indûtus [7]togâ pictâ, alterâ manû habênâs et lauream tenêbat, alterâ eburneum scêptrum. Post eum servus in currû stâns auream corônam super caput eius tenêbat. Ante currum miserrimî captîvî, rêgês prîncipêsque superâtârum gentium, catênîs vînctî, prôgrediêbantur; et vîgintî quattuor lîctôrês[8] laureatâs fascîs ferentês et signiferî currum Caesaris comitâbantur. Conclûdit agmen multitûdô captîvôrum, quî, in servitûtem redâctî,[9] dêmissô vultû, vînctîs[10] bracchiîs, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimô ôrdine mîlitês, etiam hî praedam vel insignia mîlitâria ferentês. [Illustration: LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS] Caesar cum Capitôlium ascendisset, in templô Iovî Capitôlînô sacra fêcit. Simul[11] captivôrum quî nôbilissimî erant, abductî in carcerem,[12] interfectî sunt. Sacrîs factîs Caesar dê Capitôliô dêscendit et in forô mîitibus suîs honôrês mîlitârîs dedit eîsque pecûniam ex bellî praedâ distribuit. Hîs omnibus rêbus cônfectîs, Pûblius Caesarem valêre[13] iussit et quam celerrimê ad vîllam contendit ut patrem mâtremque salûtâret. [14]Dê rêbus gestîs P. Cornêlî Lentulî hâctenus. [Footnote 1: A victorious general with his army was not allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph. A triumph was the greatest of all military honors.] [Footnote 2: «Quô diê», _on the day that_, abl. of time.] [Footnote 3: «ut ... essent», §501.43.] [Footnote 4: «Cum ... intrâret», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «quî ... immolârentur», §501.40.] [Footnote 6: The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This route was always followed by triumphal processions.] [Footnote 7: The «toga picta» worn by a general in his triumph was a splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars. See Plate IV, p. 213.] [Footnote 8: The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets. On their shoulders they carried the _fasces_, a bundle of rods with an ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.] [Footnote 9: «dêmissô vultû», _with downcast countenance_.] [Footnote 10: «vînctîs», from «vinciô».] [Footnote 11: «Simul», etc., _At the same time those of the captives who were the noblest._] [Footnote 12: The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of the Capitoline Hill.] [Footnote 13: «valêre iussit», _bade farewell to_.] [Footnote 14: This sentence marks the end of the story.] APPENDIX I DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. NOUNS «460.» Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular. FIRST DECLENSION--«Â-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ae» SECOND DECLENSION--«O-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-î» THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant stems and «I-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-is» FOURTH DECLENSION--«U-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ûs» FIFTH DECLENSION--«Ê-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-êî» or «-eî» «461.» FIRST DECLENSION. _Â_-STEMS «domina», _lady_ STEM «dominâ-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ domina -a dominae -ae _Gen._ dominae -ae dominârum -ârum _Dat._ dominae -ae dominîs -îs _Acc._ dominam -am dominâs -âs _Abl._ dominâ -â dominîs -îs _a._ «Dea» and «fîlia» have the termination «-âbus» in the dative and ablative plural. «462.» SECOND DECLENSION. _O_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES IN -us «dominus», _master_ STEM «domino-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ dominus -us dominî -î _Gen._ dominî -î dominôrum -ôrum _Dat._ dominô -ô dominîs -îs _Acc._ dominum -um dominôs -ôs _Abl._ dominô -ô dominîs -îs 1. Nouns in «-us» of the second declension have the termination «-e» in the vocative singular, as «domine». 2. Proper names in «-ius», and «filius», end in «-î» in the vocative singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as «Vergi´lî, fîlî». _b._ NEUTERS IN -um «pîlum», _spear_ STEM «pîlo-» BASE «pîl-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ pîlum -um pîla -a _Gen._ pîlî -î pîlôrum -ôrum _Dat._ pîlô -ô pîlîs -îs _Acc._ pîlum -um pîla -a _Abl._ pîlô -ô pîlîs -îs 1. Masculines in «-ius» and neuters in «-ium» end in «-î» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iî», and the accent rests on the penult. _c._ MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir «puer», _boy_ «ager», _field_ «vir», _man_ STEMS «puero-» «agro-» «viro-» BASES «puer-» «agr-» «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir -- _Gen._ puerî agrî virî -î _Dat._ puerô agrô virô -ô _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerô agrô virô -ô PLURAL _Nom._ puerî agrî virî -î _Gen._ puerôrum agrôrum virôrum -ôrum _Dat._ puerîs agrîs virîs -îs _Acc._ puerôs agrôs virôs -ôs _Abl._ puerîs agrîs virîs -îs «463.» THIRD DECLENSION. CLASSIFICATION I. Consonant Stems 1. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only. 2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: _a._ masculines and feminines; _b._ neuters. II. _I_-Stems. Masculines, feminines, and neuters. «464.» I. CONSONANT STEMS 1. _Nouns that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only_ «prînceps», «mîles», m., «lapis», m., m., _chief_ _soldier_ _stone_ BASES | OR | «prîncip-» «mîlit-» «lapid-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ prînceps mîles lapis -s _Gen._ prîncipis mîlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prîncipî mîlitî lapidî -î _Acc._ prîncipem mîlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prîncipe mîlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prîncipês mîlitês lapidês -ês _Gen._ prîncipum mîlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prîncipibus mîlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prîncipês mîlitês lapidês -ês _Abl._ prîncipibus mîlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rêx», m., «iûdex», m., «virtûs», f., _king_ _judge_ _virtue_ BASES | OR | «rêg-» «iûdic-» «virtût-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ rêx iûdex virtûs -s _Gen._ rêgis iûdicis virtûtis -is _Dat._ rêgî iûdicî virtûtî -î _Acc._ rêgem iûdicem virtûtem -em _Abl._ rêge iûdice virtûte -e PLURAL _Nom._ rêgês iûdicês virtûtês -ês _Gen._ rêgum iûdicum virtûtum -um _Dat._ rêgibus iûdicibus virtûtibus -ibus _Acc._ rêgês iûdicês virtûtês -es _Abl._ rêgibus iûdicibus virtûtibus -ibus NOTE. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §233.3. 2. _Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular_ _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cônsul», m., «legiô», f., «ôrdô», «pater», m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES | OR | «consul-» «legiôn-» «ôrdin-» «patr-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ cônsul legiô ôrdô pater -- _Gen._ cônsulis legiônis ôrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cônsulî legiônî ôrdinî patrî -î _Acc._ cônsulem legiônem ôrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cônsule legiône ôrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cônsulês legiônês ôrdinês patrês -ês _Gen._ cônsulum legiônum ôrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cônsulibus legiônibus ôrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cônsulês legiônês ôrdinês patrês -ês _Abl._ cônsulibus legiônibus ôrdinibus patribus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §236.1-3. _b._ NEUTERS «flûmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES | OR | «flûmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flûmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flûminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flûminî temporî operî capitî -î _Acc._ flûmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flûmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flûmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flûminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flûminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flûmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flûminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §238.2, 3. «465.» II. _I_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «caedês», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliêns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ caedês hostis urbs cliêns -s, -is, _or_ -ês _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedî hostî urbî clientî -î _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-î) PLURAL _Nom._ caedês hostês urbês clientês -ês _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedîs, -ês hostîs, -ês urbîs, -ês clientîs, -ês -îs, -ês _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus 1. «Avis», «cîvis», «fînis», «ignis», «nâvis», have the abl. sing. in «-î» or «-e». 2. «Turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrî» or «turre». _b._ NEUTERS «însigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «însigni-» «animâli-» «calcâri-» BASES «însign-» «animâl-» «calcâr-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ însigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ însignis animâlis calcâris -is _Dat._ însignî animâlî calcârî -î _Acc._ însigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ însignî animâlî calcârî -î PLURAL _Nom._ însignia animâlia calcâria -ia _Gen._ însignium animâlium calcârium -ium _Dat._ însignibus animâlibus calcâribus -ibus _Acc._ însignia animâlia calcâria -ia _Abl._ însignibus animâlibus calcâribus -ibus «466.» THE FOURTH DECLENSION. _U_-STEMS «adventus», m., «cornû», n., _horn_ _arrival_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» TERMINATIONS SINGULAR MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornû -us -û _Gen._ adventûs cornûs -ûs -ûs _Dat._ adventuî (û) cornû -uî (û) -û _Acc._ adventum cornû -um -û _Abl._ adventû cornû -û -û PLURAL _Nom._ adventûs cornua -ûs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventûs cornua -ûs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus «467.» THE FIFTH DECLENSION. _Ê_-STEMS «diês», m., _day_ «rês», f., _thing_ STEMS «diê-» «rê-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diês rês -ês _Gen._ diêî reî -êî _or_ -eî _Dat._ diêî reî -êî _or_ -eî _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diê rê -ê PLURAL _Nom._ diês rês -ês _Gen._ diêrum rêrum -êrum _Dat._ diêbus rêbus -êbus _Acc._ diês rês -ês _Abl._ diêbus rêbus -êbus «468.» SPECIAL PARADIGMS «deus», «domus», f., «vîs», f., «iter», m., _god_ _house_ _strength_ n., _way_ STEMS «deo-» «domu-» «vî-» and «iter-» and «vîri-» «itiner-» BASES «de-» «dom-» «v-» and «iter-» and «vîr-» «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ deus domus vîs iter _Gen._ deî domûs vîs (rare) itineris _Dat._ deô domuî, -ô vî (rare) itinerî _Acc._ deum domum vim iter _Abl._ deô domô, -û vî itinere PLURAL _Nom._ deî, dî domûs vîrês itinera _Gen._ deôrum, deum domuum, -ôrum vîrium itinerum _Dat._ deîs, dîs domibus vîribus itineribus _Acc._ deôs domôs, -ûs vîrîs, -ês itinera _Abl._ deîs, dîs domibus vîribus itineribus _a._ The vocative singular of «deus» is like the nominative. _b._ The locative of «domus» is «domî». ADJECTIVES «469.» FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. _O_- AND _Â_-STEMS _a._ ADJECTIVES IN -us «bonus», _good_ STEMS «bono-» m. and n., «bona-» f. BASE «bon-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonî bonae bonî _Dat._ bonô bonae bonô _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonô bonâ bonô PLURAL _Nom._ bonî bonae bona _Gen._ bonôrum bonârum bonôrum _Dat._ bonîs bonîs bonîs _Acc._ bonôs bonâs bona _Abl._ bonîs bonîs bonîs _b._ ADJECTIVES IN «-er» «lîber», _free_ STEMS «lîbero-» m. and n., «lîberâ-» f. BASE «lîber-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ lîber lîbera lîberum _Gen._ lîberî lîberae lîberî _Dat._ lîberô lîberae lîberô _Acc._ lîberum lîberam lîberum _Abl._ lîberô lîberâ lîberô PLURAL _Nom._ lîberî lîberae lîbera _Gen._ lîberôrum lîberârum lîberôrum _Dat._ lîberîs lîberîs lîberîs _Acc._ lîberôs lîberâs lîbera _Abl._ lîberîs lîberîs lîberîs «pulcher», _pretty_ STEMS «pulchro-» m. and n., «pulchrâ-» f. BASE «pulchr-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pulcher pulchra pulchrum _Gen._ pulchrî pulchrae pulchrî _Dat._ pulchrô pulchrae pulchrô _Acc._ pulchrum pulchram pulchrum _Abl._ pulchrô pulchrâ pulchrô PLURAL _Nom._ pulchrî pulchrae pulchra _Gen._ pulchrôrum pulchrârum pulchrôrum _Dat._ pulchrîs pulchrîs pulchrîs _Acc._ pulchrôs pulchrâs pulchra _Abl._ pulchrîs pulchrîs pulchrîs «470.» THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «alius», _another_ STEMS «alio-» m. and n., «aliâ-» f. BASE «ali-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud aliî aliae alia _Gen._ alîus alîus alîus aliôrum aliârum aliôrum _Dat._ aliî aliî aliî aliîs aliîs aliîs _Acc._ alium aliam aliud aliôs aliâs alia _Abl._ aliô aliâ aliô aliîs aliîs aliîs «ûnus», _one, only_ STEMS «ûno-» m. and n., «ûnâ-» f. BASE «ûn-» MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ûnus ûna ûnum ûnî ûnae ûna _Gen._ ûnîus ûnîus ûnîus ûnôrum ûnârum ûnôrum _Dat._ ûnî ûnî ûnî ûnîs ûnîs ûnîs _Acc._ ûnum ûnam ûnum ûnôs ûnâs ûna _Abl._ ûnô ûnâ ûnô ûnîs ûnîs ûnîs _a._ For the complete list see §108. «471.» ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. _I_-STEMS I. THREE ENDINGS «âcer, âcris, âcre», _keen, eager_ STEM «âcri-» BASE «âcr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ âcer âcris âcre âcrês âcrês âcria _Gen._ âcris âcris âcris âcrium âcrium âcrium _Dat._ âcrî âcrî âcrî âcribus âcribus âcribus _Acc._ âcrem âcrem âcre âcrîs, -ês âcrîs, -ês âcria _Abl._ âcrî âcrî âcrî âcribus âcribus âcribus II. TWO ENDINGS «omnis, omne», _every, all_ STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnês omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnî omnî omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnîs, -ês omnia _Abl._ omnî omnî omnibus omnibus III. ONE ENDING «pâr», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pâr pâr parês paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parî parî paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pâr parîs, -ês paria _Abl._ parî parî paribus paribus 1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have «-î» in the ablative singular. [Transcriber's Note: This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag on the page.] «472.» PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES «amâns», _loving_ STEM «amanti-» BASE «amant-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amâns amâns amantês amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantî amantî amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amâns amantîs, -ês amantia _Abl._ amante, -î amante, -î amantibus amantibus «iêns», _going_ STEM «ienti-, eunti-» BASE «ient-, eunt-» _Nom._ iêns iêns euntês euntia _Gen._ euntis euntis euntium euntium _Dat._ euntî euntî euntibus euntibus _Acc._ euntem iêns euntîs, -ês euntia _Abl._ eunte, -î eunte, -î euntibus euntibus «473.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MASC. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. altus (alto-) altior altius altissimus -a -um lîber (lîbero-) lîberior lîberius lîberrimus -a -um pulcher (pulchro-) pulchrior pulchrius pulcherrimus -a -um audâx (audâci-) audâcior audâcius audâcissimus -a -um brevis (brevi-) brevior brevius brevissimus -a -um âcer (âcri-) âcrior âcrius âcerrimus -a -um «474.» DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES «altior», _higher_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ altior altius altiôrês altiôra _Gen._ altiôris altiôris altiôrum altiôrum _Dat._ altiôrî altiôrî altiôribus altiôribus _Acc._ altiôrem altius altiôrês altiôra _Abl._ altiôre altiôre altiôribus altiôribus «plûs», _more_ _Nom._ ---- plûs plûrês plûra _Gen._ ---- plûris plûrium plûrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plûribus plûribus _Acc._ ---- plûs plûrîs (-ês) plûra _Abl._ ---- plûre plûribus plûribus «475.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um, melior, melius, optimus, -a, -um, _good_ _better_ _best_ malus, -a, -um, peior, peius, pessimus, -a, -um, _bad_ _worse_ _worst_ magnus, -a, -um, maior, maius, maximus, -a, -um, _great_ _greater_ _greatest_ multus, -a, -um, ----, plûs, _more_ plûrimus, -a, -um, _much_ _most_ parvus, -a, -um, minor, minus, minimus, -a, -um,_ _small_ _smaller_ _smallest senex, senis, senior maximus nâtû _old_ iuvenis, -e, iûnior minimus nâtû _young_ vetus, veteris, vetustior, -ius veterrimus, -a, -um _old_ facilis, -e, facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um _easy_ difficilis, -e, difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um _difficult_ similis, -e, similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um _similar_ dissimilis, -e, dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um _dissimilar_ humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um _slender_ exterus, _outward_ exterior, extrêmus, extimus, _outer, exterior_ _outermost, last_ înferus, _below_ înferior, _lower_ înfimus, îmus, _lowest_ posterus, posterior, _later_ postrêmus, postumus, _following_ _last_ superus, _above_ superior, suprêmus, summus, _higher_ _highest_ [[cis, citrâ,]] citerior, _hither_ citimus, _hithermost_ [[_on this side_]] [[in, intrâ,]] interior, _inner_ intimus, _inmost_ [[_in, within_]] [[prae, prô,]] prior, _former_ prîmus, _first_ [[_before_]] [[prope, _near_]] propior, _nearer_ proximus, _next_ [[ultrâ, _beyond_]] ulterior, _further_ ultimus, _furthest_ «476.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE cârê (cârus), _dearly_ cârius cârissimê miserê (miser), _wretchedly_ miserius miserrimê âcriter (âcer), _sharply_ âcrius âcerrimê facile (facilis), _easily_ facilius facillimê «477.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE diû, _long, a long time_ diûtius diûtissimê bene (bonus), _well_ melius, _better_ optimê, _best_ male (malus), _ill_ peius, _worse_ pessimê, _worst_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximê, _most_ multum (multus), _much_ plûs, _more_ plûrimum, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimê, _least_ saepe, _often_ saepîus saepissimê «478.» NUMERALS The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting «ûnus», «duo», «três», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mîlle» used as a noun. The ordinals are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». CARDINALS ORDINALS (_How many_) (_In what order_) 1, ûnus, -a, -um, _one_ prîmus, -a, -um _first_ 2, duo, duae, duo _two_ secundus (_or_ alter) _second_ 3, três, tria _three_, tertius _third_, 4, quattuor etc. quârtus etc. 5, quînque quîntus 6, sex sextus 7, septem septimus 8, octô octâvus 9, novem nônus 10, decem decimus 11, ûndecim ûndecimus 12, duodecim duodecimus 13, tredecim (decem (et) três) tertius decimus 14, quattuordecim quârtus decimus 15, quîndecim quîntus decimus 16, sêdecim sextus decimus 17, septendecim septimus decimus 18, duodêvîgintî (octôdecim) duodêvîcênsimus 19, ûndêvîgintî (novendecim) ûndêvîcênsimus 20, vîgintî vîcênsimus 21, {vîgintî ûnus _or_ {vîcênsimus prîmus _or_ {ûnus et vîgintî, etc. {ûnus et vîcênsimus, etc. 30, trîgintâ trîcênsimus 40, quadrâgintâ quadrâgênsimus 50, quînquâgintâ quînquâgênsimus 60, sexâgintâ sexâgênsimus 70, septuâgintâ septuâgênsimus 80, octôgintâ octôgênsimus 90, nônâgintâ nônâgênsimus 100, centum centênsimus 101, centum (et) ûnus, etc. centênsimus (et) prîmus, etc. 120, centum (et) vîgintî centênsimus vîcênsimus 121, centum (et) vîgintî ûnus, centênsimus (et) vîcênsimus prîmus, etc. etc. 200, ducentî, -ae, -a ducentênsimus 300, trecentî trecentênsimus 400, quadringentî quadringentênsimus 500, quîngentî quîngentênsimus 600, sescentî sescentênsimus 700, septingentî septingentênsimus 800, octingentî octingentênsimus 900, nôngentî nôngentênsimus 1000, mîlle mîllênsimus «479.» Declension of «duo», _two_, «três», _three_, and «mîlle», _a thousand_. MASC. FEM. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. SING. PLUR. _N._ duo duae duo três trîa mîlle mîlia _G._ duôrum duârum duôrum trium trium mîlle mîlium _D._ duôbus duâbus duôbus tribus tribus mîlle mîlibus _A._ duôs duâs duo trîs tria mîlle mîlia _or_ duo duâs duo _or_ três tria _A._ duôbus duâbus duôbus tribus tribus mîlle mîlibus NOTE. «Mîlle» is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular. For the declension of «ûnus» cf. §470. PRONOUNS «480.» PERSONAL ego, _I_ tû, _you_ suî, _of himself,_ _etc._ SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. _Nom._ ego nôs tû vôs ---- ---- _Gen._ meî nostrum, -trî tuî vestrum, -trî suî suî _Dat._ mihi nôbîs tibi vôbîs sibi sibi _Acc._ mê nôs tê vôs sê, sêsê sê, sêsê _Abl._ mê nôbîs tê vôbîs sê, sêsê sê, sêsê Note that «suî» is always reflexive. «481.» DEMONSTRATIVE Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings «-îus» or «-ius» and «-î» in the gen. and dat. sing. «ipse», _self_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsî ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsî´us ipsî´us ipsî´us ipsôrum ipsârum ipsôrum _Dat._ ipsî ipsî ipsî ipsîs ipsîs ipsîs _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsôs ipsâs ipsa _Abl._ ipsô ipsâ ipsô ipsîs ipsîs ipsîs «hic», _this_ (here), _he_ _Nom._ hic haec hoc hî hae haec _Gen._ huius huius huius hôrum hârum hôrum _Dat._ huic huic huic hîs hîs hîs _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc hôs hâs haec _Abl._ hôc hâc hôc hîs hîs hîs «iste», _this, that_ (of yours), _he_ _Nom._ iste ista istud istî istae ista _Gen._ istî´us istî´us istî´us istôrum istârum istôrum _Dat._ istî istî istî istîs istîs istîs _Acc._ istum istam istud istôs istâs ista _Abl._ istô istâ istô istîs istîs istîs «ille», _that_ (yonder), _he_ _Nom._ ille illa illud illî illae illa _Gen._ illî´us illî´us illî´us illôrum illârum illôrum _Dat._ illî illî illî illîs illîs illîs _Acc._ illum illam illud illôs illâs illa _Abl._ illô illâ illô illîs illîs illîs «is», _this, that, he_ _Nom._ is ea id iî, eî eae ea _Gen._ eius eius eius eôrum eârum eôrum _Dat._ eî eî eî iîs, eîs iîs, eîs iîs, eîs _Acc._ eum eam id eôs eâs ea _Abl._ eô eâ eô iîs, eîs iîs, eîs iîs, eîs «îdem», _the same_ _Nom._ îdem e´adem idem iî´dem eae´dem e´adem eî´dem _Gen._ eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem eôrun´dem eârun´dem eôrun´dem _Dat._ eî´dem eî´dem eî´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem _Acc._ eun´dem ean´dem idem eôs´dem eâs´dem e´adem _Abl._ eô´dem eâ´dem eô´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem iîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem eîs´dem NOTE. In the plural of «is» and «îdem» the forms with two i's are preferred, the two i's being pronounced as one. «482.» RELATIVE «quî», _who, which, that_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quî quae quod quî quae quae _Gen._ cuius cuius cuius quôrum quârum quôrum _Dat._ cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quam quod quôs quâs quae _Abl._ quô quâ quô quibus quibus quibus «483.» INTERROGATIVE «quis», substantive, _who, what_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quis quid qui quae quae _Gen._ cuius cuius quôrum quârum quôrum _Dat._ cui cui quibus quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quid quôs quâs quae _Abl._ quô quô quibus quibus quibus The interrogative adjective «quî, quae, quod», is declined like the relative. «484.» INDEFINITES «quis» and «quî», as declined above,[1] are used also as indefinites (_some, any_). The other indefinites are compounds of «quis» and «quî». «quisque», _each_ SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quisque quidque quisque quaeque quodque _Gen._ cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que _Dat._ cuique cuique cuique cuique cuique _Acc._ quemque quidque quemque quamque quodque _Abl._ quôque quôque quôque quâque quôque [Footnote 1: «qua» is generally used instead of «quae» in the feminine nominative singular and in the neuter nominative and accusative plural.] «485.» «quîdam», _a certain one, a certain_ Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has «quoddam» and the substantive «quiddam». SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quîdam quaedam quoddam, quiddam (_subst._) _Gen._ cuius´dam cuius´dam cuius´dam _Dat._ cuidam cuidam cuidam _Acc._ quendam quandam quoddam, quiddam (_subst._) _Abl._ quôdam quâdam quôdam PLURAL _Nom._ quîdam quaedam quaedam _Gen._ quôrun´dam quârun´dam quôrun´dam _Dat._ quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam _Acc._ quôsdam quâsdam quaedam _Abl._ quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam «486.» «quisquam», substantive, _any one_ (at all) MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quisquam quicquam (quidquam) _Gen._ cuius´quam cuius´quam _Dat._ cuiquam cuiquam _Acc._ quemquam quicquam (quidquam) _Abl._ quôquam quôquam «487.» «aliquis», substantive, _some one_. «aliquî», adjective, _some_ SINGULAR SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ aliquis aliquid aliquî aliqua aliquod _Gen._ alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius _Dat._ alicui alicui alicui alicui alicui _Acc._ aliquem aliquid aliquem aliquam aliquod _Abl._ aliquô aliquô aliquô aliquâ aliquô PLURAL FOR BOTH SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ aliquî aliquae aliqua _Gen._ aliquô´rum aliquâ´rum aliquô´rum _Dat._ ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus _Acc._ aliquôs aliquâs aliqua _Abl._ ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus _a._ «quis (quî)», _any one, any_, is the least definite (§297.b). «aliquis (aliquî)», _some one, some_, is more definite than «quis». «quisquam», _any one_ (at all), and its adjective «ûllus», _any_, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied, and in clauses of comparison. REGULAR VERBS «488.» FIRST CONJUGATION. _Â_-VERBS. _AMÔ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «amô, amâre, amâvî, amâtus» PRES. STEM amâ- PERF. STEM amâv- PART. STEM amât- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I love, am loving,_ _I am loved_, etc. _do love_, etc. amô amâmus amor amâmur amâs amâtis amâris, -re amâminî amat amant amâtur amantur IMPERFECT _I loved, was loving_, _I was loved_, etc. _did love_, etc. amâbam amâbâmus amâbar amâbâmur amâbâs amâbâtis amâbâris, -re amâbâminî amâbat amâbant amâbâtur amâbantur FUTURE _I shall love_, etc. _I shall be loved_, etc. amâbô amâbimus amâbor amâbimur amâbis amâbitis amâberis, -re amâbiminî amâbit amâbunt amâbitur amâbuntur PERFECT _I have loved, loved,_ _I have been (was) loved_, etc. _did love_, etc. amâvi amâvimus amâtus, {sum amâtî, {sumus amâvistî amâvistis -a, -um {es -ae, -a {estis amâvit amâvêrunt, -re {est {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had loved_, etc. _I had been loved_, etc. amâveram amâverâmus amâtus, {eram amâtî, {erâmus amâverâs amâverâtis -a, -um {erâs -ae, -a {erâtis amâverat amâverant {erat {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have loved_, etc. _I shall have been loved_, etc. amâverô amâverimus amâtus, {erô amâtî, {erimus amâveris amâveritis -a, -um {eris -ae, -a {eritis amâverit amâverint {erit {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT amem amêmus amer amêmur amês amêtis amêris, -re amêminî amet ament amêtur amentur IMPERFECT amârem amâremus amârer amârêmur amârês amârêtis amârêris, -re amârêminî amâret amârent amârêtur amârentur PERFECT amâverim amâverimus amâtus, {sim amâtî, {sîmus amâveris amâveritis -a, -um {sîs -ae, -a {sîtis amâverit amâverint {sit {sint PLUPERFECT amâvissem amâvissêmus amâtus, {essem amâtî, {essêmus amâvissês amâvissêtis -a, -um {essês -ae, -a {essêtis amâvisset amâvissent {esset {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT amâ, _love thou_ amâre, _be thou loved_ amâte, _love ye_ amâminî, _be ye loved_ FUTURE amâtô, _thou shalt love_ amâtor, _thou shalt be loved_ amâtô, _he shall love_ amâtor, _he shall be loved_ amâtôte, _you shall love_ ---- amantô, _they shall love_ amantor, _they shall be loved_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ amâre, _to love_ amârî, _to be loved_ _Perf._ amâvisse, amâtus, -a, -um esse, _to have loved_ _to have been loved_ _Fut._ amâtûrus, -a, -um [[amâtum îrî]], _to be about to be loved_ esse, _to be_ _about to love_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ amâns, -antis, _Pres._ ---- _loving_ _Fut._ amâtûrus, -a, -um, _Gerundive[1]_ amandus, -a, -um, _to be _about to love_ loved_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ amâtus, -a, -um, _having been loved, loved_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ amandî, _of loving_ _Dat._ amandô, _for loving_ _Acc._ amandum, _loving_ _Abl._ amandô, _by loving_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[amâtum]], _to love_ _Abl._ [[amâtû]], _to love, in the loving_ [Footnote 1: Sometimes called the future passive participle.] «489.» SECOND CONJUGATION. _Ê_-VERBS. _MONEÔ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «moneô, monêre, monuî, monitus» PRES. STEM monê- PERF. STEM monu- PART. STEM monit- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I advise_, etc., _I am advised,_ etc. moneô monêmus moneor monêmur monês monêtis monêris, -re monêminî monet monent monêtur monentur IMPERFECT _I was advising_, etc., _I was advised_, etc. monêbam monêbâmus monêbar monêbâmur monêbâs monêbâtis monêbâris, -re monêbâminî monêbat monêbant monêbâtur monêbântur FUTURE _I shall advise_, etc., _I shall be advised_, etc. monêbô monêbimus monêbor monêbimur monêbis monêbitis monêberis, -re monêbiminî monêbit monêbunt monêbitur monêbuntur PERFECT _I have advised,_ _I have been (was) advised_, etc. _I advised_, etc. monuî monuimus {sum {sumus monuistî monuistis monitus, {es monitî, {estis monuit monuêrunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had advised_, etc., _I had been advised_, etc. monueram monuerâmus {eram {erâmus monuerâs monuerâtis monitus, {eras monitî, {eratis monuerat monuerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have advised_, _I shall have been advised_, etc. etc. monuerô monuerimus {erô {erimus monueris monuerîtis monitus, {eris monitî, {eritis monuerit monuerînt -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT moneam moneâmus monear moneâmur moneâs moneâtis moneâris, -re moneâminî moneat moneant moneâtur moneantur IMPERFECT monêrem monêrêmus monêrer monêrêmur monêrês monêrêtis monêrêris, -re monêrêminî monêret monêrent monêrêtur monêrentur PERFECT monuerim monuerimus {sim {sîmus monueris monueritis monitus, {sîs monitî, {sîtis monuerit monuerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT monuissem monuissêmus {essem {essêmus monuissês monuissêtis monitus, {essês monitî, {essêtis monuisset monuissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT monê, _advise thou_ monêre, _be thou advised_ monête, _advise ye_ monêminî, _be ye advised_ FUTURE monêtô, _thou shall_ monêtor, _thou shalt be advised_ _advise_ monêtô, _he shall advise_ monêtor, _he shall be advised_ monêtôte, _you shall advise_ ---- monentô, _they shall_ monentor, _they shall be advised_ _advise_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ monêre, _to advise_ monêrî, _to be advised_ _Perf._ monuisse, _to have_ monitus, -a, -um esse, _advised_ _to have been advised_ _Fut._ monitûrus, -a, -um [[monitum îrî]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be advised_ _about to advise_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ monêns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _advising_ _Fut._ monitûrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ monendus, -a, -um, _about to advise_ _to be advised_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ monitus, -a, -um, _having been advised, advised_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ monendî, _of advising_ _Dat._ monendô, _for advising_ _Acc._ monendum, _advising_ _Abl._ monendô, _by advising_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[monitum]], _to advise_ _Abl._ [[monitû]], _to advise, in the advising_ «490.» THIRD CONJUGATION. _E_-VERBS. _REGÔ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «regô, regere, rexî, rêctus» PRES. STEM rege- PERF. STEM rêx- PART. STEM rêct- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I rule_, etc. _I am ruled_, etc. regô regimus re´gor re´gimur regis regitis re´geris, -re regi´minî regit regunt re´gitur regun´tur IMPERFECT _I was ruling_, etc. _I was ruled_, etc. regêbam regêbâmus regê´bar regêbâ´mur regêbâs regêbâtis regêbâ´ris, -re regêbâ´minî regêbat regêbant regêbâ´tur regêban´tur FUTURE _I shall rule_, etc. _I shall be ruled_, etc. regam regêmus re´gar regê´mur regês regêtis regê´ris, -re regê´minî reget regent regê´tur regen´tur PERFECT _I have ruled_, etc. _I have been ruled_, etc. rêxî rêximus {sum {sumus rêxistî rêxistis rêctus, {es rêctî, {estis rêxit rêxêrunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had ruled_, etc. _I had been ruled_, etc. rêxeram rêxerâmus {eram {erâmus rêxerâs rêxerâtis rêctus, {eras rêctî, {erâtis rêxerat rêxerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have ruled_, etc. _I shall have been ruled_, etc. rêxerô rêxerimus {erô {erimus rêxeris rêxeritis rêctus, {eris rêctî, {eritis rêxerit rêxerint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT regam regâmus regar regâmur regâs regâtis regâris, -re regâminî regat regant regâtur regantur IMPERFECT regerem regerêmus regerer regerêmur regerês regerêtis regerêris, -re regerêminî regeret regerent regerêtur regerentur PERFECT rêxerim rêxerimus {sim {sîmus rêxeris rêxeritis rêctus, {sîs rêcti, {sîtis rêxerit rêxerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT rêxissem rêxissêmus {essem {essêmus rêxissês rêxissêtis rêctus, {essês rêcti, {essêtis rêxisset rêxissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT rege, _rule thou_ regere, _be thou ruled_ regite, _rule ye_ regiminî, _be ye ruled_ FUTURE regitô, _thou shalt rule_ regitor, _thou shalt be ruled_ regitô _he shall rule_ regitor, _he shall be ruled_ regitôte, _ye shall rule_ ---- reguntô, _they shall rule_ reguntor, _they shall be ruled_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ regere, _to rule_ regî, _to be ruled_ _Perf._ rêxisse, _to have_ rêctus, -a, -um esse, _ruled_ _to have been ruled_ _Fut._ rêctûrus, -a, -um [[rêctum îrî]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be ruled_ _about to rule_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ regêns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _ruling_ _Fut._ rêctûrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ regendus, -a, -um, _to be ruled_ _about to rule_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ rêctus, -a, -um, _having been ruled, ruled_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ regendî, _of ruling_ _Dat._ regendô, _for ruling_ _Acc._ regendum, _ruling_ _Abl._ regendô, _by ruling_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[rêctum]], _to rule_ _Abl._ [[rêctû]], _to rule, in the ruling_ «491.» FOURTH CONJUGATION. _Î_-VERBS. _AUDIÔ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «audiô, audîre, audîvî, audîtus» PRES. STEM audî- PERF. STEM audîv- PART. STEM audît- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I hear_, etc. _I am heard_, etc. audiô audîmus au´dior audî´mur audîs audîtis audî´ris, -re audî´minî audit audiunt audî´tur audiun´tur IMPERFECT _I was hearing_, etc. _I was heard_, etc. audiêbam audiêbâmus audiê´bar audiêbâ´mur audiêbâs audiêbâtis audiêbâ´ris, -re audiêbâ´minî audiêbat audiêbant audiêbâ´tur audiêban´tur FUTURE _I shall hear_, etc. _I shall be heard_, etc. audiam audiêmus au´diar audiê´mur audiês audiêtis audiê´ris, -re audiê´minî audiet audient audiê´tur audien´tur PERFECT _I have heard_, etc. _I have been heard_, etc. audîvî audîvimus {sum {sumus audîvistî audîvistis audîtus, {es audîtî, {estis audîvit audîvêrunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had heard_, etc. _I had been heard_, etc. audîveram audîverâmus {eram {erâmus audîverâs audîverâtis audîtus, {eras audîtî, {erâtis audîverat audîverant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have heard_, etc. _I shall have been heard_, etc. audîverô audîverimus {erô {erimus audîveris audîveritis audîtus, {eris audîtî, {eritis audîverit audîverint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT audiam audiâmus audiar audiâmur audiâs audiâtis audiâris, -re audiâminî audiat audiant audiâtur audiantur IMPERFECT audîrem audîrêmus audîrer audîrêmur audîrês audîrêtis audîrêris, -re audîrêminî audîret audîrent audîrêtur audîrentur PERFECT audîverim audîverimus {sim {sîmus audîveris audîveritis audîtus, {sîs audîti, {sîtis audîverit audîverint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT audîvissem audîvissêmus {essem {essêmus audîvissês audîvissêtis audîtus, {essês audîti, {essêtis audîvisset audîvissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT PRESENT audî, _hear thou_ audîre, _be thou heard_ audîte, _hear ye_ audîminî, _be ye heard_ FUTURE audîtô, _thou shalt hear_ audîtor, _thou shalt be heard_ audîtô _he shall hear_ audîtor, _he shall be heard_ audîtôte, _ye shall hear_ ---- auduntô, _they shall hear_ audiuntor, _they shall be heard_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ audîre, _to hear_ audîrî, _to be heard_ _Perf._ audîvisse, audîtus, -a, -um esse, _to have heard_ _to have been heard_ _Fut._ audîtûrus, -a, -um [[audîtum îrî]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be heard_ _about to hear_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ audiêns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _hearing_ _Fut._ audîtûrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ audiendus, -a, -um, _to be heard_ _about to hear_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ audîtus, -a, -um, _having been heard, heard_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ audiendî, _of hearing_ _Dat._ audiendô, _for hearing_ _Acc._ audiendum, _hearing_ _Abl._ audiendô, _by hearing_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[audîtum]], _to hear_ _Abl._ [[audîtu]], _to hear, in the hearing_ «492.» THIRD CONJUGATION. VERBS IN _-IÔ_. _CAPIÔ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «capiô, capere, cêpî, captus» PRES. STEM cape- PERF. STEM cêp- PART. STEM capt- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT capiô capimus ca´pior ca´pimur capis capitis ca´peris, -re capi´minî capit capiunt ca´pitur capiun´tur IMPERFECT capiêbam capiebamus capiê´bar capiêbâ´mur capiêbas capiêbâtis capiêba´ris, -re capiêbâ´minî capiêbat capiêbant capiêbâ´tur capieban´tur FUTURE capiam capiêmus ca´piar capiê´mur capiês capiêtis capiê´ris, -re capiê´minî capiet capient capiê´tur capien´tur PERFECT cêpî, cêpistî, cêpit, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc. PLUPERFECT cêperam, cêperâs, cêperat, captus, -a, -um eram, erâs, erat, etc. etc. FUTURE PERFECT cêperô, cêperis, cêperit, captus, -a, -um erô, eris, erit, etc. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT capiam, capiâs, capiat, capiar, -iâris, -re, -iâtur, etc. etc. IMPERFECT caperem, caperês, caperet, caperer, -erêris, -re, -erêtur, etc. etc. PERFECT cêperim, cêperis, cêperit, captus, -a, -um sim, sîs, sit, etc. etc. PLUPERFECT cêpissem, cêpissês, captus, -a, -um essem, essês, esset, cêpisset, etc. etc. IMPERATIVE PRESENT _2d Pers._ cape capite capere capiminî FUTURE _2d Pers._ capitô capitôte capitor ---- _3rd Pers._ capitô capiuntô capitor capiuntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ capere capî _Perf._ cêpisse captus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ captûrus, -a, -um [[captum îrî]] esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ capiêns, -ientis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ captûrus, -a, -um _Ger._ capiendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ captus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ capiendî etc. SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[captum]] _Abl._ [[captû]] «493.» DEPONENT VERBS [Transcriber's Note: Asterisks in this section are from the original text ("marked with a star").] PRINCIPAL PARTS I. «hortor, hortârî, hortâtus sum», _urge_ II. «vereor, verêrî, veritus sum», _fear_ III. «sequor, sequî, secûtus sum», _follow_ IV. «partior, partîrî, partîtus sum», _share, divide_ NOTE. In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain forms from the active. These are marked with a star. Deponent -iô verbs of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capiô. INDICATIVE _Pres._ hortor vereor sequor partior hortâris, -re verêris, -re sequeris, -re partîris, -re hortâtur verêtur sequitur partîtur hortâmur verêmur sequimur partîmur hortâminî verêminî sequiminî partîminî hortantur verentur sequuntur partiuntur _Impf._ hortâbar verêbar sequêbar partiêbar _Fut._ hortâbor verêbor sequar partiar _Perf._ hortâtus sum veritus sum secûtus sum partîtus sum _Plup._ hortâtus eram veritus eram secûtus eram partîtus eram _F. P._ hortâtus erô veritus erô secûtus erô partîtus erô SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ horter verear sequar partiar _Impf._ hortârer verêrer sequerer partîrer _Perf._ hortâtus sim veritus sim secûtus sim partîtus sim _Plup._ hortâtus essem veritus essem secûtus essem partîtus essem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ hortâre verêre sequere partîre _Fut._ hortâtor verêtor sequitor partîtor INFINITIVE _Pres._ hortârî verêrî sequî partîrî _Perf._ hortâtus esse veritus esse secûtus esse partîtus esse _Fut._ *hortâtûrus *veritûrus *secûtûrus *partîtûrus esse esse esse esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ *hortâns *verêns *sequêns *partiêns _Fut._ *hortâturus *veritûrus *secûtûrus *partîtûrus _Perf._ hortâtus veritus secûtus partîtus _Ger._ hortandus verendus sequendus partiendus GERUND *hortandî, etc. *verendî, etc. *sequendî, etc. *partiendî, etc. SUPINE *[[hortâtus, -tû]] *[[veritum, -tû]] *[[secûtum, -tû]] *[[partîtum, -tû]] IRREGULAR VERBS «494.» «sum», _am, be_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «sum, esse, fuî, futûrus» PRES. STEM es- PERF. STEM fu- PART. STEM fut- INDICATIVE PRESENT SINGULAR PLURAL sum, _I am_ sumus, _we are_ es, _thou art_ estis, _you are_ est, _he (she, it) is_ sunt, _they are_ IMPERFECT eram, _I was_ erâmus, _we were_ erâs, _thou wast_ erâtis, _you were_ erat, _he was_ erant, _they were_ FUTURE erô, _I shall be_ erimus, _we shall be_ eris, _thou wilt be_ eritis, _you will be_ erit, _he will be_ erunt, _they will be_ PERFECT fuî, _I have been, was_ fuimus, _we have been, were_ fuistî, _thou hast been, wast_ fuistis, _you have been, were_ fuit, _he has been, was_ fuêrunt, fuêre, _they have been, were_ PLUPERFECT fueram, _I had been_ fuerâmus, _we had been_ fuerâs, _thou hadst been_ fuerâtis, _you had been_ fuerat, _he had been_ fuerant, _they had been_ FUTURE PERFECT fuerô, _I shall have been_ fuerimus, _we shall have been_ fueris, _thou wilt have been_ fueritis, _you will have been_ fuerit, _he will have been_ fuerint, _they will have been_ SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT IMPERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL sim sîmus essem essêmus sîs sîtis essês essêtis sit sint esset essent PERFECT PLUPERFECT fuerim fuerimus fuissem fuissêmus fueris fueritis fuissês fuissêtis fuerit fuerint fuisset fuissent IMPERATIVE PRESENT _2d Pers. Sing._ es, _be thou_ _2d Pers. Plur._ este, _be ye_ FUTURE _2d Pers. Sing._ estô, _thou shalt be_ _3d Pers. Sing._ estô, _he shall be_ _2d Pers. Plur._ estôte, _ye shall be_ _3d Pers. Plur._ suntô, _they shall be_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ esse, _to be_ _Perf._ fuisse, _to have been_ _Fut._ futûrus, -a, -um esse or «fore», _to be about to be_ PARTICIPLE futûrus, -a, -um, _about to be_ «495.» «possum», _be able, can_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «possum, posse, potuî, ----» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL _Pres._ possum pos´sumus possim possî´mus potes potes´tis possîs possî´tis potest possunt possit possint _Impf._ poteram poterâmus possem possê´mus _Fut._ poterô poterimus ---- ---- _Perf._ potuî potuimus potuerim potuerimus _Plup._ potueram potuerâmus potuissem potuissêmus _F. P._ potuerô potuerimus ---- ---- INFINITIVE _Pres._ posse _Perf._ potuisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ potens, _gen._ -entis, (adjective) _powerful_ «496.» «prôsum», _benefit_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «prôsum, prôdesse, prôfuî, prôfutûrus» PRES. STEM «prôdes-» PERF. STEM «prôfu-» PART. STEM «prôfut-» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL _Pres._ prôsum prô´sumus prôsim prôsî´mus prôdes prôdes´tis prôsîs prôsî´tis prôdest prôsunt prôsit prôsint _Impf._ prôderam prôderâmus prôdessem prodessê´mus _Fut._ prôderô prôderimus ---- ---- _Perf._ prôfuî prôfuimus prôfuerim prôfuerimus _Plup._ prôfueram prôfuerâmus prôfuissem prôfuissêmus _F. P._ prôfuerô prôfuerimus ---- ---- IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ prôdes, prôdeste _Fut. 2d Pers._ prôdestô, prôdestôte INFINITIVE _Pres._ prôdesse _Perf._ prôfuisse _Fut._ prôfutûrus, -a, -um esse FUTURE PARTICIPLE prôfutûrus, -a, -um «497.» [ «volô», «nôlô», «mâlô»] PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volô, velle, voluî», ----, _be willing, will, wish_ «nôlô, nôlle, nôluî», ----, _be unwilling, will not_ «mâlô, mâlle, mâluî», ----, _be more willing, prefer_ «Nôlô» and «mâlô» are compounds of «volô». «Nôlô» is for «ne» (_not_) + «volô», and «mâlô» for «mâ» (from «magis», _more_) + «volô». The second person «vîs» is from a different root. INDICATIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ volô nôlô mâlô vîs nôn vis mâvîs vult nôn vult mâvult PLURAL volumus nôlumus mâlumus vultis nôn vultis mâvul´tis volunt nôlunt mâlunt _Impf._ volêbam nôlêbam mâlêbam _Fut._ volam, volês, etc. nôlam, nôlês, etc. mâlam, mâlês, etc. _Perf._ voluî nôluî mâluî _Plup._ volueram nôlueram mâlueram _F. P._ voluerô nôluerô mâluerô SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ velim nôlim mâlim velîs nôlîs mâlîs velit nôlit mâlit PLURAL velî´mus nôlî´mus mâlî´mus velî´tis nôlî´tis mâlî´tis velint nôlint mâlint _Impf._ vellem nôllem mâllem _Perf._ voluerim nôluerim mâluerim _Plup._ voluissem nôluissem mâluissem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ nôlî nôlîte _Fut._ nôlîtô, etc. INFINITIVE _Pres._ velle nôlle mâlle _Perf._ voluisse nôluisse mâluisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ volêns, -entis nôlêns, -entis ---- «498.» «ferô», _bear, carry, endure_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferô, ferre, tulî, lâtus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lât- INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ ferô ferimus feror ferimur fers fertîs ferris, -re ferimimî fert ferunt fertur feruntur _Impf._ ferêbam ferêbar _Fut._ feram, ferês, etc. ferar, ferêris, etc. _Perf._ tulî lâtus, -a, -um sum _Plup._ tuleram lâtus, -a, -um eram _F. P._ tulerô lâtus, -a, -um erô SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ feram, ferâs, etc. ferar, ferâris, etc. _Impf._ ferrem ferrer _Perf._ tulerim lâtus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ tulissem lâtus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ fer ferte ferre feriminî _Fut. 2d Pers._ fertô fertôte fertor _3d Pers._ fertô ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ ferre ferrî _Perf._ tulisse lâtus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ lâtûrus, -a, -um esse ---- PARTICIPLES _Pres._ ferêns, -entis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ lâtûrus, -a, -um _Ger._ ferendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ lâtus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ ferendî _Dat._ ferendô _Acc._ ferendum _Abl._ ferendô SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[lâtum]] _Abl._ [[lâtû]] «499.» eô, _go_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «eô, îre, iî (îvî), itum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM î- PERF. STEM î- or îv- PART. STEM it- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. _Pres._ eô îmus eam _2d Pers._ î îte îs îtis it eunt _Impf._ îbam îrem _Fut._ îbô ---- _2d Pers._ îtô îtôte _3d Pers._ îtô euntô _Perf._ iî (îvî) ierim (îverim) _Plup._ ieram (îveram) îssem (îvissem) _F. P._ ierô (îverô) INFINITIVE _Pres._ îre _Perf._ îsse (îvisse) _Fut._ itûrus, -a, -um esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ iêns, _gen._ euntis (§472) _Fut._ itûrus, -a, -um _Ger._ eundum GERUND _Gen._ eundî _Dat._ eundô _Acc._ eundum _Abl._ eundô SUPINE _Acc._ [[itum]] _Abl._ [[itû]] _a._ The verb «eô» is used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive, as «îtur», «itum est», _etc._ _b._ In the perfect system the forms with «v» are very rare. «500.» «fîô», passive of «faciô»; _be made, become, happen_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «fîô, fierî, factus sum» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fîô ---- fîam _2d Pers._ fî fîte fîs ---- fit fîunt _Impf._ fîêbam fierem _Fut._ fîam ---- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE _Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem _F. P._ factus, -a, -um erô INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES _Pres._ fierî _Perf._ factus, -a, -um _Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um _Fut._ [[factum îrî]] [Illustration: CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR] APPENDIX II «501.» RULES OF SYNTAX NOTE. The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered consecutively. The number of the text section in which the rule appears is given at the end of each. _Nominative Case_ «1.» The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the question Who? or What? §36. _Agreement_ «2.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject. §28. «3.» A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. §76. «4.» An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains. §81. «5.» Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. §65. «6.» A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. §215.a. «7.» A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause. §224. _Prepositions_ «8.» A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or ablative case. §52. _Genitive Case_ «9.» The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive and answers the question Whose? §38. «10.» The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the _predicate genitive_. §409. «11.» Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as _the partitive genitive_. §331. «12.» Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective. §443. _Dative Case_ «13.» The indirect object of a verb is in the dative. §45. «14.» The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crêdô», «faveô», «noceô», «pâreô», «persuâdeô», «resistô», «studeô», and others of like meaning. §154. «15.» Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dê», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prô», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative. §426. «16.» The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning _near_, also _fit, friendly, pleasing, like_, and their opposites. §143. «17.» The dative is used to denote the _purpose_ or _end for which_; often with another dative denoting _the person or thing affected_. §437. _Accusative Case_ «18.» The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and answers the question Whom? or What? §37. «19.» The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative. §214. «20.» The _place to which_ is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rûs» the preposition is omitted. §§263, 266. «21.» _Duration of time_ and _extent of space_ are expressed by the accusative. §336. «22.» Verbs of _making, choosing, calling, showing_, and the like, may take a _predicate accusative_ along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives. §392. _Ablative Case_ «23.» _Cause_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what? §102. «24.» _Means_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? or With what? §103. «25.» _Accompaniment_ is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom? §104. «26.» The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? or In what manner? §105. «27.» With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the _measure of difference_. §317. «28.» The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance. This is called the _ablative absolute_. §381. «29.» 1. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective. §444. 2. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective. §445. «30.» The ablative is used to denote _in what respect_ something is true. §398. «31.» The _place from which_ is expressed by «â» or «ab», «dê», «ê» or «ex» with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rûs» the preposition is omitted. §§264, 266. «32.» Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning. This is called the _ablative of separation_. §180. «33.» The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «â» or «ab». This is called the _ablative of the personal agent_. §181. «34.» The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative. §309. «35.» The _time when or within which_ anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. §275. «36.» 1. The _place at or in which_ is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where? Before names of towns, small islands, and «rûs» the preposition is omitted. §§265, 266. 2. Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or second declension, and the word «domus» express the _place in which_ by the locative. §268. _Gerund and Gerundive_ «37.» 1. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns. §406.1. 2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual. §406.2. «38.» The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with «ad», or the genitive with «causâ», is used to express purpose. §407. _Moods and Tenses of Verbs_ «39.» Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by secondary. §358. «40.» The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the _purpose_ of the action in the principal clause. §349. «41.» _A substantive clause of purpose_ with the subjunctive is used as object with verbs of _commanding, urging, asking, persuading_, or _advising_, where in English we should usually have the infinitive. §366. «42.» Verbs of _fearing_ are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» (_that not_) or «nê» (_that_ or _lest_). §372. «43.» _Consecutive clauses of result_ are introduced by «ut» or «ut nôn», and have the verb in the subjunctive. §385. «44.» _Object clauses of result_ with «ut» or «ut nôn» are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about. §386. «45.» A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the _subjunctive of characteristic or description_. §390. «46.» The conjunction «cum» means _when, since_, or _although_. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means _when_ and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place. §396. «47.» When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive. §416. «48.» The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of _saying, telling, knowing, thinking_, and _perceiving_. §419. «49.» A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive. §418. «50.» In an _indirect question_ the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence. §432. [Illustration: DOMINA] APPENDIX III REVIEWS[1] [Footnote 1: It is suggested that each of these reviews be assigned for a written test.] [Transcriber's Note: In this Review section, the lists of English words for translation may not be in the same order as in the original.] I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII «502.» Give the English of the following words:[1] NOUNS agricola «gallîna» ancilla iniûria «aqua» «însula» «casa» «lûna» «causa» «nauta» cêna «pecûnia» «corôna» puella «dea» «pugna» domina «sagitta» fâbula «silva» «fera» «terra» «fîlia» «tuba» «fortûna» «via» «fuga» «victôria» ADJECTIVES «alta» «magna» «bona» «mala» «clâra» «nova» «grâta» «parva» «lâta» «pulchra» «longa» «sôla» VERBS amat «necat» «dat» «nûntiat» «est» «parat» habitat «portat» «labôrat» «pugnat» «laudat» «sunt» nârrat «vocat» PREPOSITIONS «â» or «ab» «ad» «cum» «dê» «ê» or «ex» «in» PRONOUNS «mea» «tua» «quis» «cuius» «cui» «quem» «quid» ADVERBS «cûr» «deinde» «nôn» «ubi» CONJUNCTIONS «et» quia «quod» INTERROGATIVE PARTICLE «-ne» [Footnote 1: Proper nouns and proper adjectives are not repeated in the reviews. Words used in Cassar's "Gallic War" are in heavy type.] «503.» Give the Latin of the following words:[1] Underline the words you do not remember. Do not look up a single word till you have gone through the entire list. Then drill on the words you have underlined. _flight_ _wide_ story tells _new_ _money_ lives (verb) _calls_ _away from_ _with_ _who_ _your_ _why_ _then, in the next place_ _forest_ _daughter_ _wreath_ _to whom_ _deep, high_ _fortune_ dinner _famous_ _out from_ _labors_ (verb) _my_ _kills_ _where_ _not_ _trumpet_ _in_ lady, mistress _and_ _whom_ _sailor_ _island_ farmer _goddess_ _what_ _wild beast_ _way_ _praises_ (verb) _bad_ _alone_ loves _pleasing_ _pretty_ _prepares_ _water_ _are_ _great_ _to_ _is_ _because_ _announces_ _arrow_ _injury, wrong_ _cottage_ _battle_ (noun) _gives_ _small_ girl _fights_ (verb) _good_ maid _carries_ _down from_ _chicken_ _long_ _victory_ _cause_ _land_ _whose_ [Footnote 1: The translations of words used in Cæsar are in italics.] «504.» «Review Questions.» How many syllables has a Latin word? How are words divided into syllables? What is the ultima? the penult? the antepenult? When is a syllable short? When is a syllable long? What is the law of Latin accent? Define the subject of a sentence; the predicate; the object; the copula. What is inflection? declension? conjugation? What is the ending of the verb in the third person singular, and what in the plural? What does the form of a noun show? Name the Latin cases. What case is used for the subject? the direct object? the possessor? What relation is expressed by the dative case? Give the rule for the indirect object. How are questions answered in Latin? What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective? What is meant by agreement? Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective. What are the three relations expressed by the ablative? What can you say of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the adjective? What is the base? What is grammatical gender? What is the rule for gender in the first declension? What are the general principles of Latin word order? «505.» Fill out the following summary of the first declension: THE FIRST OR Â-DECLENSION 1. Ending in the nominative singular 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations a. Singular b. Plural 4. Irregular nouns II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII «506.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «agrî cultûra» «galea» «cônstantia» «inopia» «côpia» «lacrima» «dîligentia» «lôrîca» «fâma» «patria» fêmina «praeda» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «ager» «lîberî» «amîcus» magister «arma» (plural) «mûrus» «auxilium» «numerus» «bellum» «oppidânus» «carrus» «oppidum» «castrum» «pîlum» «cibus» «populus» «cônsilium» «praemium» «domicilium» «proelium» dominus «puer» «equus» «scûtum» «fîlius» «servus» fluvius «studium» «frûmentum» «têlum» «gladius» «vîcus» «lêgâtus» «vir» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aeger, aegra, aegrum» «alius, alia, aliud» «alter, altera, alterum» «armâtus, -a, -um» «crêber, crêbra, crêbrum» «dûrus, -a, -um» «fînitimus, -a, -um» «înfîrmus, -a, -um» «legiônârius, -a, -um» «lîber, lîbera, lîberum» «mâtûrus, -a, -um» «meus, -a, -um» «miser, misera, miserum» «multus, -a, -um» «neuter, neutra, neutrum» «noster, nostra, nostrum» «nûllus, -a, -um» «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum» «sôlus, -a, -um» «suus, -a, -um» «tôtus, -a, -um» «tuus, -a, -um» «ûllus, -a, -um» «ûnus, -a, -um» «uter, utra, utrum» validus, -a, -um «vester, vestra, vestrum» VERBS arat «cûrat» «dêsîderat» «mâtûrat» «properat» DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN «is, ea, id» CONJUNCTIONS «an» «-que» «sed» ADVERBS «iam» quô «saepe» PREPOSITION «apud» «507.» Give the Latin of the following words: _sword_ _shield_ (noun) _corselet_ _whole_ _man_ _it_ _your_ (plural) _aid_ (noun) _hasten_ _legionary_ _but_ _weak_ _among_ _arms_ _tear_ (noun) master (of school) _village_ _friend_ strong _neighboring_ _long for_ _sick_ _and_ (enclitic) _lieutenant_ _often_ _field_ _want_ (noun) _report, rumor_ _which_ (of two) _abode_ _care for_ _boy_ _or_ (in a question) _his own_ whither _alone_ _wagon_ _prize_ (noun) _townsman_ master (owner) _wretched_ _carefulness_ _ripe_ _plenty_ _war_ _troops_ _number_ _plan_ (noun) _my_ _people_ _free_ (adj.) _beautiful_ _children_ _no_ (adj.) _wall_ _our_ _grain_ _battle_ _weapon_ _spear_ _one_ _food_ plow (verb) _steadiness_ _this_ or _that_ _fatherland_ _already_ _town_ _helmet_ _fort_ river _camp_ _zeal_ _neither_ (of two) _any_ _much_ _he_ _agriculture_ _son_ _other_ _slave_ _the other_ (of two) _your_ (singular) _hard_ _she_ _booty_ _woman_ _frequent_ _horse_ _armed_ «508.» «Review Questions.» How many declensions are there? What three things must be known about a noun before it can be declined? What three cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the plural? What two plural cases are always alike? When is the vocative singular not like the nominative? What is a predicate noun? With what does it agree? What is an appositive? Give the rule for the agreement of an appositive. How can we tell whether a noun in «-er» is declined like «puer» or like «ager»? Decline «bonus», «lîber», «pulcher». How can we tell whether an adjective in «-er» is declined like «lîber» or like «pulcher»? Why must we say «nauta bonus» and not «nauta bona»? Name the Latin possessive pronouns. How are they declined? With what does the possessive pronoun agree? When do we use «tuus» and when «vester»? Why is «suus» called a _reflexive_ possessive? What is the non-reflexive possessive of the third person? When are possessives omitted? What four uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in English by _with_? Give an illustration in Latin of the _ablative of manner_; of the _ablative of cause_; of the _ablative of means_; of the _ablative of accompaniment_. What ablative regularly has «cum»? What ablative sometimes has «cum»? What uses of the ablative never have «cum»? Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings. Decline «alius», «nûllus». Decline «is». What does «is» mean as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun? What other important use has it? «509.» Fill out the following summary of the second declension: THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION 1. Endings in the nominative 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations of nouns in «-us» a. Singular b. Plural a. The vocative singular of nouns in «-us» 4. Case terminations of nouns in «-um» a. Singular b. Plural 5. Peculiarities of nouns in «-er» and «-ir» 6. Peculiarities of nouns in «-ius» and «-ium» III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI «510.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «disciplîna» rêgîna «fôrma» superbia «poena» «trîstitia» «potentia» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION lûdus «ôrnâmentum» sacrum «socius» «verbum» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «amîcus» îrâtus «antîquus» «laetus» «fînitimus» «molestus» «grâtus» «perpetuus» «idôneus» «proximus» «inimîcus» «septem» «interfectus» «superbus» ADVERBS hodiê «ibi» «maximê» mox «nunc» «nûper» CONJUNCTIONS «etiam» «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam» PERSONAL PRONOUN «ego» VERBS CONJ. I volô, -âre CONJ. II «dêleô, -êre» «noceô, -êre» «doceô, -êre» «pâreô, -êre» «faveô, -êre» «persuâdeô, -êre» «habeô, -êre» sedeô, -êre «iubeô, -êre» «studeô, -êre» «moneô, -êre» «videô, -êre» «moveô, -êre» CONJ. III «agô, -ere» «fugiô, -ere» «capiô, -ere» «iaciô, -ere» «crêdô, -ere» «mittô, -ere» «dîcô, -ere» rapiô, -ere «dûcô, -ere» «regô, -ere» «faciô, -ere» «resistô, -ere» CONJ. IV «audiô, -îre» «mûniô, -îre» «reperiô, -îre» «veniô, -îre» IRREGULAR VERB «sum, esse» «511.» «Give the Latin of the following words.» In the case of verbs always give the first form and the present infinitive. _ancient_ _power_ _come_ _make, do_ _resist_ _injure_ _see_ _now_ _be_ _annoying_ fly _lead_ _I_ _move_ _proud_ soon _word_ _glad_ _sadness_ _punishment_ _find_ _believe_ _rule_ (verb) _advise_ _be eager for_ _especially, most of all_ _not only ... but also_ angry _seven_ _beauty_ _ally, companion_ _say_ pride _command_ (verb) _fortify_ _there_ _send_ _slain_ sit _training_ _also_ _take_ school _have_ _hear_ to-day _hurl_ _unfriendly_ _persuade_ _drive_ _only_ _favor_ (verb) _nearest_ _suitable_ sacred rite _pleasing_ queen _teach_ _flee_ _neighboring_ _obey_ _destroy_ _lately_ _friendly_ _constant_ seize _ornament_ «512.» «Review Questions.» What is conjugation? Name two important differences between conjugation in Latin and in English. What is tense? What is mood? What are the Latin moods? When do we use the indicative mood? Name the six tenses of the indicative. What are personal endings? Name those you have had. Inflect sum in the three tenses you have learned. How many regular conjugations are there? How are they distinguished? How is the present stem found? What tenses are formed from the present stem? What is the tense sign of the imperfect? What is the meaning of the imperfect? What is the tense sign of the future in the first two conjugations? in the last two? Before what letters is a final long vowel of the stem shortened? What are the three possible translations of a present, as of pugnô? Inflect arô, sedeô, mittô, faciô, and veniô, in the present, imperfect, and future active. What forms of -iô verbs of the third conjugation are like audiô? what like regô? Give the rule for the dative with adjectives. Name the special intransitive verbs that govern the dative. What does the imperative mood express? How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in the plural? What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative? Give the present active imperative of portô, dêleô, agô, faciô, mûniô. IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI «513.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «âla» «cûra» «mora» «porta» «prôvincia» «vîta» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «animus» «nâvigium» aurum ôrâculum «bracchium» «perîculum» «deus» «ventus» «locus» «vînum» mônstrum ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «adversus» «dubius» attentus «maximus» «cârus» perfidus «commôtus» «plênus» «dêfessus» saevus «dexter» «sinister» ADVERBS «anteâ» «ita» «celeriter» «longê» «dênique» «semper» «diû» «subitô» «frûstrâ» «tamen» «graviter» «tum» CONJUNCTIONS «autem» «sî» «ubi» PREPOSITIONS «dê» «per» «prô» «sine» VERBS CONJ. I «adpropinquô» «servô» «nâvigô» «stô» «occupô» «superô» «postulô» «temptô» «recûsô» «vâstô» «reportô» «vulnerô» CONJ. II «contineô» «egeô» «prohibeô» «respondeô» «teneô» CONJ. III «discêdô» «gerô» «interficiô» IRREGULAR VERB «absum» «514.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs. _be away_ _heavily_ _wind_ monster _through_ _approach_ _if_ _nevertheless_ savage _place_ _wound_ (verb) _be without, lack_ _wine_ _moved_ _delay_ gold faithless _restrain, keep from_ _right_ _without_ _seize_ _hold_ _quickly_ _suddenly_ _before, in behalf of_ _dear_ _battle_ _always_ _down from_ or _concerning_ _god_ _moreover_ _hold in, keep_ _greatest_ _afar_ oracle _thus, so, as follows_ _danger_ _arm_ (noun) _lay waste_ _when_ _gate_ _in vain_ _doubtful_ _stand_ _opposite, adverse_ _bring back, win_ _demand_ _before, previously_ _finally_ _depart, go away_ attentive _province_ _then, at that time_ _care, trouble_ _weary_ _kill_ _overcome, conquer_ _reply_ (verb) _conquer_ _wing_ _boat, ship_ _mind, heart_ _sail_ (verb) _left_ (adj.) _life_ _bear, carry on_ _save_ _try_ _full_ _for a long time_ _refuse_ «515.» Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs: «sum» «faveô» «dô» «noceô» «teneô» «dîcô» «iubeô» «pâreô» «agô» «dûcô» «mittô» «faciô» «mûniô» «persuâdeô» «moveô» «sedeô» «crêdô» «studeô» «rapiô» «fugiô» «reperiô» «veniô» «dêleô» «iaciô» «resistô» «videô» «audiô» «absum» «moneô» «egeô» «capiô» «gerô» «doceô» «stô» «regô» «516.» «Review Questions.» What are the personal endings in the passive voice? What is the letter -r sometimes called? What are the distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations? What forms constitute the principal parts? What are the three different conjugation stems? How may they be found? What are the tenses of the indicative? of the infinitive? What tense of the imperative have you learned? What forms are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial stem? What are the endings of the perfect active indicative? What is the tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active? How is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive? How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive imperative? How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect passive infinitive? How is the future active infinitive formed? What is a participle? How are participles in -us declined? Give the rule for the agreement of the participle. How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive indicative formed? Conjugate the verb «sum» in all moods and tenses as far as you have learned it (§494). What is meant by the separative ablative? How is the place _from which_ expressed in Latin? Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of the personal agent. How can we distinguish between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent? What is the perfect definite? the perfect indefinite? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect indefinite and the imperfect? What two cases in Latin may be governed by a preposition? Name the prepositions that govern the ablative. What does the preposition «in» mean when it governs the ablative? the accusative? What are the three interrogatives used to introduce _yes_-and-_no_ questions? Explain the force of each. What words are sometimes used for _yes_ and _no?_ What are the different meanings and uses of ubi? V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV «517.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION SECOND DECLENSION «rîpa» «barbarî» «captîvus» «castellum» «impedîmentum» THIRD DECLENSION «animal» «homô» «ôrdô» «arbor» «hostîs» «pater» «avis» «ignis» «pedes» «caedês» «imperâtor» «pês» «calamitâs» «însigne» pôns calcar «iter» «prînceps» «caput» iûdex «rêx» «cîvis» «labor» «salûs» «cliêns» «lapis» «sanguis» «collis» «legiô» «soror» «cônsul» «mare» tempus «dêns» «mâter» «terror» «dux» «mênsis» «turris» «eques» «mîles» «urbs» «fînis» «môns» «victor» «flûmen» «nâvis» «virtûs» fôns «opus» «vîs» «frâter» «ôrâtor» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «barbarus» «dexter» «sinister» «summus» PREPOSITIONS «in» with the abl. «in» with the acc. «trâns» ADVERBS «cotîdiê» «numquam» CONJUNCTIONS «nec, neque» «nec ... nec», or «neque ... neque» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. III «cessô» «accipiô» «oppugnô» «petô» «confirmô» «vincô» «vetô» «incipiô» «ponô» «vivô» «518.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: _forbid_ _in_ _rank, row_ _judge_ _brother_ _defeat, disaster_ _force_ _fire_ _across_ _tree_ _savages_ _foot soldier_ _horseman_ _receive_ _never_ _general_ _mountain_ _highest_ _manliness, courage_ _fountain_ _leader_ _orator_ _put, place_ _neither ... nor_ _time_ _and not_ _savage, barbarous_ _left_ _sister_ _tooth_ _seek_ _soldier_ _captive_ _month_ _hindrance, baggage_ _city_ _captive_ _victor_ _hindrance, baggage_ _daily_ _man-of-war_ _live_ (verb) _conquer_ _redoubt, fort_ _consul_ _sea_ _mother_ _tower_ _retainer_ _drill_ (verb) _citizen_ _legion_ _head_ _terror_ _safety_ _into, to_ _assail, storm_ _right_ (adj.) _begin_ _stone_ _march_ _blood_ _decoration_ _labor_ (noun) _bridge_ _king_ _bird_ _spur_ _cease_ _chief_ _man_ _slaughter_ _river_ _strengthen_ _work_ (noun) _foot_ _and_ _enemy_ _ship_ _animal_ _bank_ _father_ «519.» «Review Questions.» Give the conjugation of «possum». What is an infinitive? What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the English? What is the case of the subject of the infinitive? What is meant by a complementary infinitive? In the sentence _The bad boy cannot be happy_, what is the case of _happy_? Give the rule. Decline «quî». Give the rule for the agreement of the relative. What are the two uses of the interrogative? Decline «quis». What is the base of a noun? How is the stem formed from the base? Are the stem and the base ever the same? How many declensions of nouns are there? Name them. What are the two chief divisions of the third declension? How are the consonant stems classified? Explain the formation of «lapis» from the stem «lapid-», «mîles» from «mîlit-», «rêx» from «rêg-». What nouns have «i»-stems? What peculiarities of form do «i»-stems have,--masc., fem., and neut.? Name the five nouns that have «-î» and «-e» in the abl. Decline «turris». Give the rules for gender in the third declension. Decline «mîles», «lapis», «rêx», «virtûs», «cônsul», «legiô», «homô», «pater», «flûmen», «opus», «tempus», «caput», «caedês», «urbs», «hostis», «mare», «animal», «vîs», «iter». «520.» Fill out the following scheme: { { Masculine { GENDER { Feminine { ENDINGS { Neuter { THE THIRD { { I. CONSONANT { _a_. Masc. and fem. DECLENSION { { STEMS { _b_. Neuters { CASE { { TERMINATIONS { { { { { II. _I_-STEMS { _a_. Masc. and fem. { { { _b_. Neuters { { IRREGULAR NOUNS VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII «521.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «amîcitia» «hôra» «littera» SECOND DECLENSION «annus» «supplicium», «modus» «supplicium dare» «nûntius» «supplicium sûmere dê» «oculus» «tergum», «rêgnum» «tergum vertere» «signum» «vestîgium» THIRD DECLENSION «aestâs» «nox» «corpus» «pars» «hiems» «pâx» «lîbertâs» rûs «lûx», «sôl» «prîma lûx» «vôx» «nômen» «vulnus» FOURTH DECLENSION «adventus» «impetus» «cornû» «lacus» «domus» «manus» «equitâtus» «metus» «exercitus» «portus» «fluctus» FIFTH DECLENSION «aciês» «rês», «diês» «rês gestae» «fidês», «rês adversae» «in fidem venîre» «rês secundae» «rês pûblica» «spês» INDECLINABLE NOUN «nihil» ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «dênsus» «prîstinus» «invîsus» «pûblicus» «mîrus» «secundus» «paucî» «tantus» «prîmus» «vêrus» THIRD DECLENSION «âcer, âcris, âcre» «gravis, grave» «brevis, breve» «incolumis, incolume» «difficilis, difficile» «omnis, omne» «facîlis, facile» «pâr, pâr» «fortis, forte» «vêlôx, vêlôx» PRONOUNS PERSONAL «ego» «nôs» «suî» «tû» «vôs» DEMONSTRATIVE «hic» «îdem» «ille» «iste» INTENSIVE «ipse» INDEFINITE «aliquis, aliquî» «quîdam» «quis, quî» «quisquam» «quisque» ADVERBS «nê ... quidem» «quoque» ôlim «satis» «paene» «vêrô» CONJUNCTIONS «itaque» «nisi» PREPOSITIONS «ante» «post» «propter» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «conlocô» «dêbeô» «convocô» «exerceô» «cremô» «maneô» «dêmônstrô» «placeô» «mandô» «sustineô» CONJ. III CONJ. IV «committô», «dêsiliô» «committere proelium» «dêcidô» «êripiô» «sûmô», «sûmere supplicium dê» «trâdûcô» «vertô» «522.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs. _if not, unless_ _adversity_ _on account of_ _former, old-time_ _public_ _all, every_ _commonwealth_ _any one_ (at all) _leap down, dismount_ _this_ (of mine) _unharmed_ _heavy, serious_ _lead across_ _hateful, detested_ _remain_ _true_ _call together_ _burn_ _friendship_ _snatch from_ _footprint, trace_ _letter_ _each_ _punishment_ _fear_ (noun) _inflict punishment on_ _hope_ _behind, after_ _therefore_ _suffer punishment_ _so great_ _liberty_ _equal_ _sun_ _in truth, indeed_ _sustain_ _that_ (yonder) _take up, assume_ _a certain_ _hour_ _fall down_ _reign, realm_ _owe, ought_ _messenger_ _measure, mode_ _part, direction_ _eye_ _body_ _name_ _harbor_ _wave, billow_ _faith, protection_ _thing, matter_ _of himself_ _exploits_ _also, too_ _republic_ _sufficiently_ _prosperity_ _you_ (plur.) _burn_ _peace_ _that_ (of yours) _back_ _before_ _turn the back, retreat_ _light_ _night_ _daybreak_ _hand, force_ _winter_ _lake_ _attack_ _day_ _line of battle_ _commit, intrust_ _army_ _a few only_ _drill, train_ _sharp, eager_ _join battle_ _we_ _house, home_ _turn_ _midday_ _you_ (sing.) _wonderful_ _I_ _brave_ _signal_ _almost_ _summer_ _the same_ _cavalry_ _some, any_ _wound_ _if any one_ _horn, wing_ _self, very_ _country_ _not even_ _second, favorable_ _easy_ _formerly, once_ _dense_ _short_ _point out, explain_ _voice_ _difficult_ _arrival_ _first_ _come under the protection of_ _arrange, station_ _nothing_ _please_ _swift_ _year_ «523.» «Review Questions.» By what declensions are Latin adjectives declined? What can you say about the stem of adjectives of the third declension? Into what classes are these adjectives divided? How can you tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs? Decline «âcer, omnis, pâr». What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth or «u»-declension? What nouns are feminine by exception? Decline «adventus, lacus, cornû, domus». Give the rules for the ordinary expression of the _place to which_, the _place from which_, the _place in which_. What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands, and «rûs»? What is the locative case? What words have a locative case? What is the form of the locative case? Translate _Galba lives at home, Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii_. What is the rule for gender in the fifth or «ê»-declension? Decline «diês», «rês». When is the long «ê» shortened? What can you say about the plural of the fifth declension? Decline «tuba», «servus», «pîlum», «ager», «puer», «mîles», «cônsul», «flûmen», «caedês», «animal». How is the _time when_ expressed? Name the classes of pronouns and define each class. Decline «ego, tû, is». What are the reflexives of the first and second persons? What is the reflexive of the third person? Decline it. Translate _I see myself, he sees himself, he sees him_. Decline «ipse». How is «ipse» used? Decline «îdem». Decline «hic», «iste», «ille». Explain the use of these words. Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns. Decline «aliquis», «quisquam», «quîdam», «quisque». VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX «524.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «aquila» «fossa» SECOND DECLENSION «aedificium» «negôtium» «captîvus» «spatium» «concilium» «vâllum» «imperium» THIRD DECLENSION «agmen» «mors» «celeritâs» «mulier» «cîvitâs» «multitûdô» «clâmor» «mûnîtiô» «cohors» «nêmô» «difficultâs» «obses» «explôrâtor» «opîniô» «gêns» «regiô» «lâtitûdô» «rûmor» «longitûdô» «scelus» «magnitûdô» «servitûs» «mêns» «timor» «mercâtor» «vallês» «mîlle» FOURTH DECLENSIONS «aditus» «passus» «commeâtus» FIFTH DECLENSION «rês frûmentâria» ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aequus» «pessimus» «bînî» «plûrimus» «ducentî» «posterus» «duo» «prîmus» «exterus» reliquus «înferus» «secundus» «maximus» «singulî» «medius» «superus» «minimus» «tardus» «opportûnus» «ternî» «optimus» «ûnus» THIRD DECLENSION «alacer, alacris, alacre» «audâx, audâx» «celer, celeris, celere» «citerior, citerius» «difficilis, difficile» «dissimilis, dissimile» «facilis, facile» gracilis, gracile «humilis, humile» «ingêns, ingêns» «interior, interius» «lênis, lêne» «maior, maius» «melior, melius» «minor, minus» «nôbilis, nôbile» «peior, peius» ----, «plûs» «prior, prius» «recêns, recêns» «similis, simile» «três, tria» «ulterior, ulterius» ADVERBS «âcriter» «optimê» «audâcter» «parum» «bene» «paulô» «facile» «plûrimum» «ferê» «prope» «fortiter» «propius» «magis» «proximê» «magnopere» «quam» «maximê» «statim» «melius» «tam» «minimê» «undique» «multum» CONJUNCTIONS «atque, ac» «quâ dê causâ» «aut» «quam ob rem» «aut ... aut» «simul atque or» «et ... et» «simul ac «nam»» PREPOSITIONS «circum» «contrâ» «inter» «ob» «trâns» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «cônor» «obtineô» «hortor» «perterreô» «moror» «valeô» «vexô» «vereor» CONJ. III «abdô» «patior» «cadô» premô «cognôscô» «proficîscor» «cônsequor» «prôgredior» «contendô» «quaerô» «cupiô» «recipiô» «currô» «relinquô» «dêdô» «revertor» «dêfendô» «sequor» êgredior statuô «incendô» subsequor «incolô» «suscipiô» «însequor» «trâdô» «occîdô» «trahô» CONJ. IV «orior» perveniô» «525.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: _on account of_ _width_ _nearly_ _scout_ _keenly, sharply_ _cohort_ _thousand_ _tribe, nation_ _two_ _business_ _opportune_ _by a little_ _remaining_ _somewhat_ _above_ (adj.) _crime_ _next_ _difficult_ _grain supply_ _equal_ _pace_ _move forward, advance_ _shout_ (noun) _further_ _from all sides_ _multitude_ _against_ _woman_ _around_ _desire_ (verb) _three_ _give over, surrender_ _line of march_ _kill_ _manor_ _overtake_ _region_ _hasten, strive_ _fortification_ _hide_ _eagle_ _one_ _almost_ _first_ _boldly_ _second, favorable_ _bravely_ _two hundred_ _across_ _former_ _between, among_ _inner_ _hither_ (adj.) _middle_ _so_ _low_ _less_ _outward_ _more_ _three by three_ _most_ _provisions_ _worst_ _speed_ _difficulty_ _ditch_ _hostage_ _wherefore_ or _therefore_ _death_ _length_ _command, power_ _for this reason_ _captive_ _fear_ (noun) _or_ _return_ _and_ _inquire_ _arrive_ _set out_ _attempt, try_ _move out, disembark_ _fear_ (verb) _leave_ _worse_ _abandon_ _greater, larger_ _be strong_ _two by two_ _receive, recover_ _least_ (adv.) _terrify, frighten_ _opinion, expectation_ _dwell_ _defend_ _state, citizenship_ _approach, entrance_ _valley_ _trader_ _slavery_ _magnitude, size_ _greatly_ _council, assembly_ _best of all_ (adv.) _space, room_ _better_ (adv.) _either ... or_ _well_ (adv.) _rise, arise_ _very much_ _suffer, allow_ _much_ _press hard_ _unlike_ _fall_ _like_ (adj.) _surrender_ _slow_ _set fire to_ _very greatly, exceedingly_ _possess, hold_ _building_ _delay_ (verb) _mind_ (noun) _nearest_ (adv.) _easily_ _nearer_ (adv.) _easy_ _better_ (adj.) _recent_ _well known, noble_ _huge, great_ _rampart_ _bold_ _mild, gentle_ _immediately_ _swift_ _as soon as_ _eager_ _for_ _low_ (adj.) _than_ _slender_ _best_ (adj.) _one by one_ _greatest_ _no one_ _follow close_ _least_ (adv.) _encourage_ _little_ (adv.) _annoy, ravage_ _learn, know_ _hide_ _drag_ _follow_ _undertake_ _pursue_ _run_ _both ... and_ _fix, decide_ «526.» «Review Questions.» What is meant by comparison? In what two ways may adjectives be compared? Compare «clârus, brevis, vêlôx», and explain the formation of the comparative and the superlative. What are the adverbs used in comparison? Compare «brevis» by adverbs. Decline the comparative of «vêlôx». How are adjectives in «-er» compared? Compare «âcer», «pulcher», «liber». What are possible translations for the comparative and superlative? Name the six adjectives that form the superlative in «-limus». Translate in two ways _Nothing is brighter than the sun_. Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives. Compare «bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, înferus, posterus, superus». Decline «plûs». Compare «citerior, interior, propior, ulterior». Translate _That route to Italy is much shorter_. Give the rule for the expression of measure of difference. Name five words that are especially common in this construction. How are adverbs usually formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from adjectives of the third declension? Compare the adverbs «cârê», «lîberê», «fortiter», «audâcter». What cases of adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs? What are the adverbs from «facilis»? «multus? prîmus? plûrimus»? «bonus»? «magnus»? «parvus»? Compare «prope», «saepe», «magnopere». How are numerals classified? Give the first twenty cardinals. Decline «ûnus, duo, três, mîlle». How are the hundreds declined? What is meant by the partitive genitive? Give the rule for the partitive genitive. What sort of words are commonly used with this construction? What construction is used with «quîdam» and cardinal numbers excepting «mîlle»? Give the first twenty ordinals. How are they declined? How are the distributives declined? Give the rule for the expression of duration of time and extent of space. What is the difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time? What is a deponent verb? Give the synopsis of one. What form always has a passive meaning? Conjugate «amô», «moneô», «regô», «capiô», «audiô», in the active and passive. VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX «527.» Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons. See §§502, 503, 506, 507. «528.» «Review Questions.» Name the tenses of the subjunctive. What time is denoted by these tenses? What are the mood signs of the present subjunctive? How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed? How do the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in form? How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed? Inflect the subjunctive active and passive of «cûrô», «dêleô», «vincô», «rapiô», «mûniô». Inflect the subjunctive tenses of «sum»; of «possum». What are the tenses of the participles in the active? What in the passive? Give the active and passive participles of «amô», «moneô», «regô», «capiô», «audiô». Decline «regêns». What participles do deponent verbs have? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a deponent verb and of one not deponent? Give the participles of «vereor». How should participles usually be translated? Conjugate «volô», «nolô», «mâlô», «fîô». What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their fundamental ideas? How is purpose usually expressed in English? How is it expressed in Latin? By what words is a Latin purpose clause introduced? When should «quô» be used? What is meant by sequence of tenses? Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the subjunctive; the secondary tenses. What Latin verbs are regularly followed by substantive clauses of purpose? What construction follows «iubeô»? What construction follows verbs of _fearing_? How is consequence or result expressed in Latin? How is a result clause introduced? What words are often found in the principal clause foreshadowing the coming of a result clause? How may negative purpose be distinguished from negative result? What is meant by the subjunctive of characteristic or description? How are such clauses introduced? Explain the ablative absolute. Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent occurrence in Latin? Explain the predicate accusative. After what verbs are two accusatives commonly found? What do these accusatives become when the verb is passive? [Illustration: IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR] SPECIAL VOCABULARIES The words in heavy type are used in Cæsar's "Gallic War." [Transcriber's Note: Each chapter's Special Vocabulary was included with its chapter text in addition to its original location here. Details are given in the Transcriber's Note at the beginning of the text. In the printed book, the vocabularies for Lesson IV and Lesson V appeared on the same page; the Footnote about _conjunctions_ was shared by the two lists.] LESSON IV, §39 NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diâ´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lâtô´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _c[oo]i´y[oo]s_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] LESSON V, §47 NOUNS «corô´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fâ´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecû´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victô´ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nârrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _c[oo]i_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] LESSON VI, §56 ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grâta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sôla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iûlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cûr», _why_ «nôn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne?» _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne?» _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cûr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] LESSON VII, §62 NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cêna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallî´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «în´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) LESSON VIII, §69 NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clâra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lâta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) LESSON IX, §77 NOUNS «bellum, -î», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cônstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -î, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -î», m., _horse_ (equine) «frûmentum, -î», n., _grain_ «lêgâtus, -î», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mârcus, -î», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mûrus, -î», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidânus, -î», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -î», n., _town_ «pîlum, -î», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -î», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -î, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cûrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ LESSON X, §82 NOUNS «amîcus, -î», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germânia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -î», m., _people_ «Rhênus, -î», m., _the Rhine_ «vîcus, -î», m., _village_ LESSON XI, §86 NOUNS «arma, armôrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fâma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «têlum, -î», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dûrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rômânus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rômânus, -î», m., _a Roman_ LESSON XII, §90 NOUNS «fîlius, fîlî», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvî, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladî», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dî», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelî», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fînitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fînitimî, -ôrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germânus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germânus, -î», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ LESSON XIII, §95 NOUNS «ager, agrî», m., _field_ (acre) «côpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornêlius, Cornê´lî», m., _Cornelius_ «lôrî´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemî», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerî», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rôma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scûtum, -î», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virî», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiônârius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiônâriî, -ôrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «lîber, lîbera, lîberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «lîberî, -ôrum,» m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iî» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-î», as in nouns.] LESSON XIV, §99 NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lî», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -î», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -î», m., _food_ «cônsilium, cônsi´lî», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dîligentia, -ae», f., _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrî, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crêber, crêbra, crêbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] LESSON XV, §107 NOUNS «carrus, -î», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «côpia» «studium, studî», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armâtus, -a, -um», _armed_ «înfîrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mâtûrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma têla´que», _arms and weapons_. LESSON XVII, §117 NOUNS «agrî cultûra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilîum, domîci´lî», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fêmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -î», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mâtûrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quô, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dêsîderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» LESSON XVIII, §124 NOUNS lûdus, -î, m., _school_ «socius, socî», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «îrâtus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiê, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nûper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past LESSON XX, §136 NOUNS «fôrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regîna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trîstîtîa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES «septem,» indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ LESSON XXI, §140 NOUNS sacrum, -î, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -î», n., _word_ (verb) VERBS sedeô, -êre, _sit_ (sediment) volô, -âre, _fly_ (volatile) ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_ «ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative. LESSON XXII, §146 NOUNS «disciplîna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gâius, Gâî», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ôrnâmentum, -î», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe´rî, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name VERB «doceô, -êre», _teach_ (doctrine) ADVERB «maximê», _most of all, especially_ ADJECTIVE «antîquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique) LESSON XXVII, §168 NOUNS «âla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -î», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -î», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ôrâculum, -î, n., _oracle_ VERB «vâstô, -âre», _lay waste, devastate_ ADJECTIVES «commôtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_ ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_ [Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468] LESSON XXVIII, §171 VERBS «respondeô, -êre», _respond, reply_ «servô, -âre», _save, preserve_ ADJECTIVE «cârus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish) CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first NOUN «vîta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital) LESSON XXIX, §176 VERB «superô, -âre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable) NOUNS «cûra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -î», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ôrum», etc. «perîculum, -î», n., _danger, peril_ ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_ PREPOSITIONS «dê», with abl., _down from.; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_ CONJUNCTION «si», _if_ LESSON XXX, §182 VERBS «absum», abesse, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquô, -âre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineô, -êre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discêdô, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeô, -êre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiô, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeô, -êre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerô, -âre», _wound_ (vulnerable) NOUNS «prôvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vînum, -î», n., _wine_ ADJECTIVE «dêfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_ ADVERB «longê», _far, by far, far away_ [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.] LESSON XXXI, §188 NOUNS aurum, -î, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nâvigium, nâvi´gî», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -î», m., _wind_ (ventilate) VERB «nâvigô, -âre», _sail_ (navigate) ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy) ADVERB «anteâ», _before, previously_ PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_ LESSON XXXII, §193 NOUNS «animus, -î», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchî», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal) ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plênus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty) PREPOSITION «prô», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_ ADVERB «diû», _for a long time, long_ LESSON XXXIV, §200 ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dênique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitô», _suddenly_ VERB «reportô, -âre, -âvî», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report) LESSON XXXVI, §211 «dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frûstrâ», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate) «gerô, gerere, gessî, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupô, occupâre, occupâvî, occupâtus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulô, postulâre, postulâvî, postulâtus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recûsô, recûsâre, recûsâvî, recûsâtus», _refuse_ «stô, stâre, stetî, status», _stand_ «temptô, temptâre, temptâvî, temptâtus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneô, tenêre, tenuî, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious) The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mônstrum audîvêrunt, fûgêrunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_ 2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videô oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_ «ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._ LESSON XXXVII, §217 «neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -î», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotîdiê», adv., _daily_ cessô, cessâre, cessâvî, cessâtus, _cease_, with the infin. «incipiô, incipere, incêpî, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnô, oppugnâre, oppugnâvî, oppugnâtus», _storm, assail_ «petô, petere, petivi» or «petiî, petîtus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pônô, pônere, posuî, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pônere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuî, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetô, vetâre, vetuî, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeô», _command_ «vincô, vincere, vîcî, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vîvô, vîvere, vîxî, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive) LESSON XXXIX, §234 «barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarî, -ôrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dûcô» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iûdex, iûdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mîles, mîlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pês, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prînceps, prîncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rêx, rêgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtûs, virtûtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue) [Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.] LESSON XL, §237 «Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_ «captîvus, -î», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cônsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frâter, frâtris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homô, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedîmentum, -î», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedîmenta, -ôrum», _baggage_ «imperâtor, imperâtôris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiô, legiônis», f., _legion_ «mâter, mâtris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ôrdô, ôrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salûs, salûtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorôris», f., _sister_ (sorority) LESSON XLI, §239 «calamitâs, calamitâtis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flûmen, flûminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labôris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ôrâtor, ôrâtôris», m., _orator_ «rîpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrôris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victôris», m., _victor_ «accipiô, accipere, accêpî, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cônfirmô, cônfîrmâre, cônfîrmâvî, cônfîrmâtus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm) LESSON XLIII, §245 «animal, animâlis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedês, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcâris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cîvis, cîvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliêns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fînis, fînis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimîcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «însigne, însignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nâvis, nâvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nâvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum». [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark the i-stems.] [Footnote B: The genitive plural of mare is not in use.] LESSON XLIV, §249 «arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dêns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fôns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mênsis, mênsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mûrus» «môns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus môns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pôns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trâns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vîs (vîs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim) LESSON XLV, §258 «âcer, âcris, âcre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pâr», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucî, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -î», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vêlôx», gen. «vêlôcis», _swift_ (velocity) «conlocô, conlocâre, conlocâvî, conlocâtus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dêmônstrô, dêmônstrâre, dêmônstrâvî, dêmônstrâtus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandô, mandâre, mandâvî, mandâtus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate) LESSON XLVI, §261 «adventus, -ûs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornû, -ûs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «â dextrô cornû», _on the right wing_; «â sinistrô cornû», _on the left wing_ «equitâtus, -ûs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ûs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ûs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ûs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ûs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ûs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem) «cremô, cremâre, cremâvî, cremâtus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceô, exercêre, exercuî, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise) LESSON XLVII, §270 Athênae, -ârum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -î, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ûs, locative «domî»», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genâva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompêii, -ôrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rûs, rûris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rûra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergî», n., _back_; «â tergô», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable) «committô, committere, commîsî, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocô, convocâre, convocâvî, convocâtus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeô, timêre, timuî, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertô, vertere, vertî, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_ LESSON XLVIII, §276 «aciês, -êî», f., _line of battle_ «aestâs, aestâtis», f., _summer_ «annus, -î», m., _year_ (annual) «diês, diêî», m., _day_ (diary) «fidês, fideî, no plur.», f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venîre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ûs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hôra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lûx, lûcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prîma lux», _daybreak_ «merîdiês», acc. «-em», abl. «-ê», no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prîmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rês, reî», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rês gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rês adversae», _adversity_; «rês secundae», _prosperity_ «spês, speî», f., _hope_ LESSON XLIX, §283 «amîcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metûs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nûntius, nûntî», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nûntiô» «pâx, pâcis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rêgnum, -î», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli´cî», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sûmere dê», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena» «placeô, placêre, placuî, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sûmô, sûmere, sûmpsî, sûmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineô, sustinêre, sustinuî, sustentus», _sustain_ LESSON L, §288 «corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dênsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «îdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mîrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ôlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sôl, sôlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vêrus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity) «dêbeô, dêbêre, dêbuî, dêbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «êripiô, êripere, êripuî, êreptus», _snatch from_ LESSON LI, §294 «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invîsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lîbertâs, -âtis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -î», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nômen, nôminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -î», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prîstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pûblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rês pûblica, reî pûblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestîgium, vestî´gî», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vôx, vôcis», f., _voice_ LESSON LII, §298 «incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nê ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nê» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vêrô», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first. «dêcidô, dêcidere, dêcidî, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dêsiliô, dêsilîre, dêsiluî, dêsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneô, manêre, mânsî, mânsûrus», _remain_ «trâdûcô, trâdûcere, trâdûxî, trâductus», _lead across_ LESSON LIII, §306 «aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audâx», gen. «audâcis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vêlôx» «explôratôr, -ôris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingêns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mêns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportûnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audâcissimî virî, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb «quaerô, quaerere, quaesîvî, quaesîtus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petô» LESSON LIV, §310 «alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritâs, -âtis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clâmor, clâmôris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lênis, lêne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., _woman_ «multitûdô, multitûdinis», f., _multitude_ «nêmô», dat. «nêminî», acc. «nêminem» (gen. «nûllîus», abl. «nûllô», from «nûllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nôbilis, nôbile», _well known, noble_ «noctû», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitô», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiô, cupere, cupîvî, cupîtus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity) LESSON LV, §314 «aedificium, aedifi´cî», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe´rî», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitûs, -ûtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallês, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_ «abdô, abdere, abdidî, abditus», _hide_ «contendô, contendere, contendî, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occîdô, occîdere, occîdî, occîsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necô», «interficiô» «perterreô, perterrêre, perterruî, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiô, recipere, recêpî, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sê recipere», _betake one's self, withdraw, retreat_ «trâdô, trâdere, trâdidî, trâditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor) LESSON LVI, §318 «aditus, -ûs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cîvitâs, cîvitâtis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulô», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_ «incolô, incolere, incoluî, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitô», «vîvô» «relinquô, relinquere, relîquî, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuô, statuere, statuî, statûtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin. LESSON LVII, §326 «aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currô, currere, cucurrî, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultâs, -âtis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gêns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negôtium, negôtî», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiô, -ônis», f., _region, district_ «rûmor, rûmôris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fâma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_ «suscipiô, suscipere, suscêpî, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahô, trahere, trâxî, trâctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeô, valêre, valuî, valitûrus», _be strong_; plûrimum valêre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus LESSON LVIII, §332 «commeâtus, -ûs», m.. _provisions_ «lâtitûdô, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitûdô, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitûdô, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercâtor, mercâtôris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mûnîtiô, -ônis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatî», n., _room, space, distance; time_ «cognôscô, cognôscere, cognôvî, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «côgô, côgere, coêgî, coâctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dêfendô, dêfendere, dêfendî, dêfênsus», _defend_ «incendô, incendere, incendî, incênsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremô» «obtineô, obtinêre, obtinuî, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniô, pervenîre, pervênî, perventus», _come through, arrive_ LESSON LIX, §337 «agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prîmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lî», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvêtiî, -ôrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passûs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mîlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quâ dê causâ», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vâllum, -î», n., _earth-works, rampart_ «cadô, cadere, cecidî, câsûrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dêdô, dêdere, dêdidî, dêditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one's self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premô, premere, pressî, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexô, vexâre, vexâvî, vexâtus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex) LESSON LX, §341 «aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causâ», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferê», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opîniô, -ônis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rês frûmentâria, reî frûmentâriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ôris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeô» «undique», adv., _from all sides_ «cônor, cônârî, cônâtus sum», _attempt, try_ «êgredior, êgredî, êgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prôgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morârî, morâtus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirî, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficîscor, proficîscî, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertî, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertî» «sequor, sequî, secûtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cônsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «însequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_ LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such; they are inserted to show etymological meanings. [Transcriber's Note: The "parentheses" were originally printed as [square brackets]. They are rendered here as [[double brackets]].] A «â» or «ab», prep. with abl. _from, by, off_. Translated _on_ in «â dextrô cornû», _on the right wing_; «â fronte», _on the front_ or _in front_; «â dextrâ», _on the right_; «â latere», _on the side_; etc. «ab-dô, -ere, -didî, -ditus», _hide, conceal_ «ab-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus», _lead off, lead away_ «abs-cîdô, -ere, -cîdî,-cîsus» [[«ab(s)», _off_, + «caedô», _cut_]], _cut off_ «ab-sum, -esse, âfuî, âfutûrus», _be away, be absent, be distant, be off_; with «â» or «ab» and abl., §501.32 «ac», conj., see «atque» «ac-cipiô, -ere, -cêpî, -ceptus» [[«ad», _to_, + «capiô», _take_]], _receive, accept_ «âcer, âcris, âcre», adj. _sharp_; figuratively, _keen, active, eager_ (§471) «acerbus, -a, -um», adj. _bitter, sour_ «aciês, -êî», f. [[«âcer», _sharp_]], _edge; line of battle_ «âcriter», adv. [[«âcer», _sharp_]], compared «âcrius, âcerrimê», _sharply, fiercely_ «ad», prep. with acc. _to, towards, near_. With the gerund or gerundive, _to, for_ «ad-aequô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _make equal, make level with_ «ad-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus», _lead to; move, induce_ «ad-eô, -îre, -iî, -itus», _go to, approach, draw near, visit_, with acc. (§413) «ad-ferô, ad-ferre, at-tulî, ad-lâtus», _bring, convey; report, announce; render, give_ (§426) «ad-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«ad», _to_, + «faciô», _do_]], _affect, visit_ «adflîctâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «adflîctô», _shatter_]], _shattered_ «ad-flîgô, -ere, -flîxî, -flîctus», _dash upon, strike upon; harass, distress_ «ad-hibeô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«ad», _to_, + «habeô», _hold_]], _apply, employ, use_ «ad-hûc», adv. _hitherto, as yet, thus far_ «aditus, -ûs», m. [[«adeô», _approach_]], _approach, access; entrance_. Cf. «adventus» «ad-ligô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _bind to, fasten_ «ad-loquor, -loquî, -locûtus sum», dep. verb [[«ad», _to_, + «loquor», _speak_]], _speak to, address_, with acc. «ad-ministrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _manage, direct_ «admîrâtiô, -ônis», f. [[«admîror», _wonder at_]], _admiration, astonishment_ «ad-moveô, -êre, -môvî, -môtus», _move to; apply, employ_ «ad-propinquô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _come near, approach_, with dat. «ad-sum, -esse, -fuî, -futûres», _be present; assist_; with dat., §426 «adulêscêns, -entis», m. and f. [[part. of «adolêscô», _grow_]], _a youth, young man, young person_ «adventus, -ûs», m. [[«ad», _to_, + «veniô», _come_]], _approach, arrival_ (§466) «adversus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «advertô», _turn to_]], _turned towards, facing; contrary, adverse_. «rês adversae», _adversity_ «aedificium, aedifi´cî», n. [[«aedificô», _build_]], _building, edifice_ «aedificô, -âre, -âvi, -âtus» [[«aedês», _house_, + «faciô», _make_]], _build_ «aeger, aegra, aegrum», adj. _sick, feeble_ «aequâlis, -e», adj. _equal, like_. As a noun, «aequâlis, -is», m. or f. _one of the same age_ «aequus, -a, -um», adj. _even, level; equal_ «Aesôpus, -î», m. _Æsop_, a writer of fables «aestâs, -âtis», f. _summer_, «initâ aestâte», _at the beginning of summer_ «aetâs, -âtis», f. _age_ «Aethiopia, -ae», f. _Ethiopia_, a country in Africa «Âfrica, -ae», f. _Africa_ «Âfricânus, -a, -um», adj. _of Africa_. A name given to Scipio for his victories in Africa «ager, agrî», m. _field, farm, land_ (§462.c) «agger, -eris», m. _mound_ «agmen, -inis», n. [[«agô», _drive_]], _an army_ on the march, _column_. «prîmum agmen», _the van_ «agô, -ere, êgî, âctus», _drive, lead; do, perform_. «vîtam agere», _pass life_ «agricola, -ae», m. [[«ager», _field_, + «colô», _cultivate_]], _farmer_ «agrî cultûra, -ae», f. _agriculture_ «âla, -ae», f. _wing_ «alacer, -cris, -cre», adj. _active, eager_. Cf. «âcer» «alacritâs, -âtis», f. [[«alacer», _active_]], _eagerness, alacrity_ «alacriter», adv. [[«alacer», _active_]], comp «alacrius, alacerrimê», _actively, eagerly_ «albus, -a, -um», adj., _white_ «alcês, -is», f. _elk_ «Alcmêna, -ae», f. _Alcme´na_, the mother of Hercules «aliquis (-quî), -qua, -quid (-quod)», indef. pron. _some one, some_ (§487) «alius, -a, -ud» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), adj. _another, other_. «alius ... alius», _one ... another_. «aliî ... aliî», _some ... others_ (§110) «Alpês, -ium», f. plur. _the Alps_ «alter, -era, -erum» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), adj. _the one, the other_ (of two). «alter ... alter», _the one ... the other_ (§110) «altitûdô, -inis», f. [[«altus», _high_]], _height_ «altus, -a, -um», adj. _high, tall, deep_ «Amâzonês, -um», f. plur. _Amazons_, a fabled tribe of warlike women «ambô, -ae, -ô», adj. (decl. like «duo»), _both_ «amîcê», adv. [[«amîcus», _friendly_]], superl. «amîcissimê», _in a friendly manner_ «amiciô, -îre, ----, -ictus» [[«am-», _about_, + «iaciô», _throw_]], _throw around, wrap about, clothe_ «amîcitia, -ae», f. [[«amîcus», _friend_]], _friendship_ «amîcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«amô», _love_]], _friendly_. As a noun, «amîcus, -î», m. _friend_ «â-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus», _send away; lose_ «amô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _love, like, be fond of_ (§488) «amphitheâtrum, -î», n. _amphitheater_ «amplus, -a, -um», adj. _large, ample; honorable, noble_ «an», conj. _or_, introducing the second part of a double question «ancilla, -ae», f. _maidservant_ «ancora, -ae», f. _anchor_ «Andromeda, -ae», f. _Androm´eda_, daughter of Cepheus and wife of Perseus «angulus, -î», m. _angle, corner_ «anim-advertô, -ere, -tî, -sus [[animus», _mind_, + «advertô», _turn to_]], _turn the mind to, notice_ «animal, -âlis», n. [[«anima», _breath_]], _animal_ (§465.b) «animôsus, -a, -um», adj. _spirited_ «animus, -î», m. [[«anima», _breath_]], _mind, heart; spirit, courage, feeling;_ in this sense often plural «annus, -i», m. _year_ «ante», prep, with acc. _before_ «anteâ», adv. [[«ante»]], _before, formerly_ «antîquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ante», _before_]], _former, ancient, old_ «aper, aprî», m. _wild boar_ «Apollô, -inis», m. _Apollo_, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of Diana «ap-pâreô, -êre, -uî», ---- [[«ad + pâreô», _appear_]], _appear_ «ap-pellô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _call by name, name_. Cf. «nôminô, vocô» «Appius, -a, -um», adj. _Appian_ «ap-plicô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _apply, direct, turn_ «apud», prep, with acc. _among; at, at the house of_ «aqua, -ae», f. _water_ «aquila, -ae», f. _eagle_ «âra, -ae», f. _altar_ «arbitror, -ârî, -âtus sum», _think, suppose_ (§420.c). Cf. «exîstimô, putô» «arbor, -oris», f. _tree_ (§247.1.a) «Arcadia, -ae», f. _Arcadia_, a district in southern Greece «ârdeô, -êre, ârsî, ârsûrus», _be on fire, blaze, burn_ «arduus, -a, -um», adj. _steep_ «Arîcia, -ae», f. _Aricia_, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome «ariês, -etis», m. _battering-ram_ (p. 221) «arma, -ôrum», n. plur. _arms, weapons_. Cf. «têlum» «armâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«armô», _arm_]], _armed, equipped_ «arô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _plow, till_ «ars, artis», f. _art, skill_ «articulus, -î», m. _joint_ «ascrîbô, -ere, -scrîpsî, -scrîptus» [[«ad», _in addition_, + «scrîbô», _write_]], _enroll, enlist_ «Âsia, -ae», f. _Asia_, i.e. Asia Minor «at», conj. _but_. Cf. «autem, sed» «Athênae, -ârum», f. plur. _Athens_ «Atlâs, -antis», m. _Atlas_, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky «at-que, ac», conj. _and, and also, and what is more_. «atque» may be used before either vowels or consonants, «ac» before consonants only «attentus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «attendô», _direct_ (the mind) _toward_]], _attentive, intent on, careful_ «at-tonitus, -a, -um», adj. _thunderstruck, astounded_ «audâcia, -ae», f. [[«audâx», _bold_]], _boldness, audacity_ «audâcter», adv. [[«audâx», _bold_]], compared «audâcius, audâcissimê», _boldly_ «audâx, -âcis», adj. _bold, daring_ «audeô, -êre, ausus sum», _dare_ «audiô, -îre, -îvî or -îî, -îtus», _hear, listen to_ (§§420.d, 491) «Augêâs, -ae», m. _Auge´as_, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned «aura, -ae», f. _air, breeze_ «aurâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«aurum», _gold_]], _adorned with gold_ «aureus, -a, -um», adj.[[«aurum», _gold_]], _golden_ «aurum, -î», n. _gold_ «aut», conj. _or_. «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «autem», conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, _but, moreover, however, now_. Cf. «at, sed» «auxilium, auxi´lî», n. _help, aid, assistance;_ plur. _auxiliaries_ «â-vertô, -ere, -tî, -sus», _turn away, turn aside_ «avis, -is», f. _bird_ (§243.1) B «ballista, -ae», f. _ballista_, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220) «balteus, -î», m. _belt, sword belt_ «barbarus, -î», m. _barbarian, savage_ «bellum, -î», n. _war_. «bellum înferre», with dat. _make war upon_ «bene», adv. [[for «bonê», from «bonus»]], compared «melius, optimê», _well_ «benignê», adv. [[«benignus», _kind_]], compared «benignius, benignissimê», _kindly_ «benignus, -a, -um», adj. _good-natured, kind_, often used with dat. «bînî, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _two each, two at a time_ (§334) «bis», adv. _twice_ «bonus, -a, -um», adj. compared «melior, optimus», _good, kind_ (§469.a) «bôs, bovis» (gen. plur. «boum» or «bovum», dat. and abl. plur. «bôbus» or «bûbus»), m. and f. _ox, cow_ «bracchium, bracchî», n. _arm_ «brevis, -e», adj. _short_ «Brundisium, -î», n. _Brundisium_, a seaport in southern Italy. See map «bulla, -ae», f. _bulla_, a locket made of small concave plates of gold fastened by a spring (p. 212) C «C.» abbreviation for «Gâius», Eng. _Caius_ «cadô, -ere, ce´cidî, câsûrus», _fall_ «caedês, -is», f. [[«caedô», _cut_]], (_a cutting down_), _slaughter, carnage_ (§465.a) «caelum, -î», n. _sky, heavens_ «Caesar, -aris», m. _Cæsar_, the famous general, statesman, and writer «calamitâs, -âtis», f. _loss, calamity, defeat, disaster_ «calcar, -âris», n. _spur_ (§465.b) «Campânia, -ae», f. _Campania_., a district of central Italy. See map «Campânus, -a, -um», adj. _of Campania_ «campus, -î», m. _plain, field_, esp. the _Campus Martius_, along the Tiber just outside the walls of Rome «canis, -is», m. and f. _dog_ «canô, -ere, ce´cinî», ----, _sing_ «cantô, -âre, -âvi, -âtus» [[«canô», _sing_]], _sing_ «Capênus, -a, -um», adj. _of Capena_, esp. the _Porta Cape´na_, the gate at Rome leading to the Appian Way «capiô, -ere, cêpî, captus», _take, seize, capture_ (§492) «Capitôlînus, -a, -um», adj. _belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline_ «Capitôlium, Capitô´lî», n. [[«caput», _head_]], _the Capitol_, the hill at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the citadel «capsa, -ae», f. _box_ for books «captîvus, -î», m. [[«capiô», _take_]], _captive_ «Capua, -ae», f. _Capua_, a large city of Campania. See map «caput, -itis», n. _head_ (§464.2.b) «carcer, -eris», m. _prison, jail_ «carrus, -î», m. _cart, wagon_ «cârus, -a, -um», adj. _dear; precious_ «casa, -ae», f. _hut, cottage_ «castellum, -î», n. [[dim. of «castrum», _fort_]], _redoubt, fort_ «castrum, -î», n. _fort_. Usually in the plural, «castra, -ôrum», a military _camp_. «castra pônere», _to pitch camp_ «câsus, -us», m. [[«cadô», _fall_]], _chance; misfortune, loss_ «catapulta, -ae», f. _catapult_, an engine for hurling stones «catêna, -ae», f. _chain_ «caupôna, -ae», f. _inn_ «causa, -ae», f. _cause, reason_, «quâ dê causâ», _for this reason_ «cêdô, -ere, cessî, cessûrus», _give way, retire_ «celer, -eris, -ere», adj. _swift, fleet_ «celeritâs, -âtis», f. [[«celer», _swift_]], _swiftness, speed_ «celeriter», adv. [[«celer», _swift_]], compared «celerius, celerrimê», _swiftly_ «cêna, -ae», f. _dinner_ «centum», indecl. numeral adj. _hundred_ «centuriô, -ônis», m. _centurion, captain_ «Cêpheus» (dissyl.), «-eî» (acc. «Cêphea»), m. _Cepheus_, a king of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda «Cerberus, -î», m. _Cerberus_, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades «certâmen, -inis», n. [[«certô», _struggle_]], _struggle, contest, rivalry_ «certê», adv. [[«certus», _sure_]], compared «certius, certissimê», _surely, certainly_ «certus, -a, -um», adj. _fixed, certain, sure_. «aliquem certiôrem facere» (_to make some one more certain_), _to inform some one_ «cervus, -î», m. _stag, deer_ «cessô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _delay, cease_ «cibâria, -ôrum», n. plur. _food, provisions_ «cibus, -î», m. _food, victuals_ «Cimbrî, -ôrum», m. plur. _the Cimbri_ «Cimbricus, -a, -um», adj. _Cimbrian_ «cînctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «cingô», _surround_]], _girt, surrounded_ «cingô, -ere, cînxî, cînctus», _gird, surround_ «circiter», adv. _about_ «circum», prep, with acc. _around_ «circum´-dô, -dare, -dedî, -datus», _place around, surround, inclose_ «circum´-eô, -îre, -iî, -itus», _go around_ «circum-sistô, -ere, circum´stetî», ----, _stand around, surround_ «circum-veniô, -îre, -vênî, -ventus» (_come around_), _surround_ «citerior, -ius», adj. in comp., superl. «citimus», _hither, nearer_ (§475) «cîvîlis, -e», adj. [[«cîvis»]], _civil_ «cîvis, -is», m. and f. _citizen_ (§243.1) «cîvitâs, -âtis», f. [[«cîvis», _citizen_]], (_body of citizens_), _state; citizenship_ «clâmor, -ôris», m. _shout, cry_ «clârus, -a, -um», adj. _clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining_ «classis, -is», f. _fleet_ «claudô, -ere, -sî, -sus», _shut, close_ «clavus, -î», m. _stripe_ «cliêns, -entis», m. _dependent, retainer, client_ (§465.a) «Cocles, -itis», m. (_blind in one eye_), _Cocles_, the surname of Horatius «co-gnôscô, -ere, -gnôvî, -gnîtus», _learn, know, understand_. Cf. «sciô» (§420.b) «côgô, -ere, coêgî, coâctus» [[«co(m)-», _together_, + «agô», _drive_]], (_drive together_), _collect; compel, drive_ «cohors, cohortis», f. _cohort_, the tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «collis, -is», m. _hill_, «in summô colle», _on top of the hill_ (§247.2.a) «collum, -î», n. _neck_ «colô, -ere, coluî, cultus», _cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote one's self to_ «columna, -ae», f. _column, pillar_ «com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-)», a prefix, _together, with_, or intensifying the meaning of the root word «coma, -ae», f. _hair_ «comes, -itis», m. and f. [[«com-», _together_, + «eô», _go_]], _companion, comrade_ «comitâtus, -ûs», m. [[«comitor», _accompany_]], _escort, company_ «comitor, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb [[«comes», _companion_]], _accompany_ «com-meâtus, -ûs», m. _supplies_ «com-minus», adv. [[«com-», _together_, + «manus», _hand_]], _hand to hand_ «com-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus», _join together; commit, intrust_. «proelium committere», _join battle_. «sê committere» with dat, _trust one's self to_ «commodê», adv. [[«commodus», _fit_]], compared «commodius, commodissimê», _conveniently, fitly_ «commodus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, fit_ «com-môtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «commoveô», _move_]], _aroused, moved_ «com-parô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «parô», _prepare_]], _prepare; provide, get_ «com-pleô, -êre, -plêvî, -plêtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «pleô», _fill_]], _fill up_ «complexus, -ûs», m. _embrace_ «com-primô, -ere, -pressî, -pressus» [[«com-», _together_, + «premô», _press_]], _press together, grasp, seize_ «con-cidô, -ere, -cidî», ---- [[«com-», intensive, + «cadô», _fall_]], _fall down_ «concilium, conci´lî», n. _meeting, council_ «con-clûdô, -ere, -clûsî, -clûsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «claudô», _close_]], _shut up, close; end, finish_ «con-currô, -ere, -currî, -cursus» [[«com-», _together_, + «currô», _run_]], _run together; rally, gather_ «condiciô, -ônis», f. [[«com-», _together_, + «dicô», _talk_]], _agreement, condition, terms_ «con-dônô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _pardon_ «con-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus», _hire_ «côn-ferô, -ferre, -tulî, -lâtus», _bring together_. «sê cônferre», _betake one's self_ «côn-fertus, -a, -um», adj. _crowded, thick_ «cônfestim», adv. _immediately_ «côn-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«com-», _completely_, + «faciô», _do_]], _make, complete, accomplish, finish_ «côn-fîrmô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _make firm, establish, strengthen, affirm, assert_ «côn-fluô, -ere, -flûxî», ----, _flow together_ «côn-fugiô, -ere, -fûgî, -fugitûrus», _flee for refuge, flee_ «con-iciô, -ere, -iêcî, -iectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «iaciô», _throw_]], _hurl_ «con-iungô, -ere, -iûnxî, -iûnctus» [[«com-», _together_, + «iungô», _join_]], _join together, unite_ «con-iûrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», _together_, + «iûrô», _swear_]], _unite by oath, conspire_ «con-locô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», _together_, + «locô», _place_]], _arrange, place, station_ «conloquium, conlo´quî», n. [[«com-», _together_, + «loquor», _speak_]], _conversation, conference_ «cônor, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb, _endeavor, attempt, try_ «côn-scendô, -ere, -scendî, -scênsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «scandô», _climb_]], _climb up, ascend_. «nâvem cônscendere», _embark, go on board_ «côn-scrîbô, -ere, -scrîpsî, -scrîptus» [[«com-», _together_, + «scrîbô», _write_]], (_write together_), _enroll, enlist_ «côn-secrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sacrô», _consecrate_]], _consecrate, devote_ «côn-sequor, -sequî, -secûtus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «sequor», _follow_]], _pursue; overtake; win_ «côn-servô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «servô», _save_]], _preserve, save_ «cônsilium, cônsi´lî», n. _plan, purpose, design; wisdom_ «côn-sistô, -ere, -stitî, -stitus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sistô», _cause to stand_]], _stand firmly, halt, take one's stand_ «côn-spiciô, -ere, -spêxî, -spectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «spiciô», _spy_]], _look at attentively, perceive, see_ «cônstantia, -ae», f. _firmness, steadiness, perseverance_ «côn-stituô, -ere, -uî, -ûtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «statuô», _set_]], _establish, determine, resolve_ «côn-stô, -âre, -stitî, -stâtûrus» [[«com-», _together_, + «stô», _stand_]], _agree; be certain; consist of_ «cônsul, -ulis», m. _consul_ (§464.2.a) «côn-sûmô, -ere, -sûmpsî, -sûmptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sumô», _take_]], _consume, use up_ «con-tendô, -ere, -dî, -tus», _strain; hasten; fight, contend, struggle_ «con-tineô, -êre, -uî, -tentus» [[«com-», _together_, + «teneô», _hold_]], _hold together, hem in, contain; restrain_ «contrâ», prep, with acc. _against, contrary to_ «con-trahô, -ere, -trâxî, -trâctus» [[«com-», _together_, + «trahô», _draw_]], _draw together;_ of sails, _shorten, furl_ «contrôversia, -ae», f. _dispute, quarrel_ «con-veniô, -îre, -vênî, -ventus» [[«com-», _together_, + «veniô», _come_]], _come together, meet, assemble_ «con-vertô, -ere, -vertî, -versus» [[«com-», intensive, + «vertô», _turn_]], _turn_ «con-vocô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«com-», _together_, + «vocô», _call_]], _call together_ «co-orior, -îrî, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «orior», _rise_]], _rise, break forth_ «côpia, -ae», f. [[«com-», intensive, + «ops», _wealth_]], _abundance, wealth, plenty_. Plur. «côpiae, -ârum», _troops_ «coquô, -ere, coxî, coctus», _cook_ «Corinthus, -î», f. _Corinth_, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth «Cornêlia, -ae», f. _Cornelia_, daughter of Scipio and mother of the Gracchi «Cornêlius, Cornê´lî», m. _Cornelius_, a Roman name «cornû, -ûs», n. _horn; wing_ of an army, «â dextrô cornû», _on the right wing_ (§466) «corôna, -ae», f. _garland, wreath; crown_ «corônâtus, -a, -um», adj. _crowned_ «corpus, -oris», n. _body_ «cor-ripiô, -ere, -uî, -reptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «rapiô», _seize_]], _seize, grasp_ «cotîdiânus, -a, -um», adj. _daily_ «cotîdiê», adv. _daily_ «crêber, -bra, -brum», adj. _thick, crowded, numerous, frequent_ «crêdô, -ere, -dîdî, -ditus», _trust, believe_, with dat. (§501.14) «cremô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _burn_ «creô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _make; elect, appoint_ «Creôn, -ontis», m. _Creon_, a king of Corinth «crêscô, -ere, crêvî, crêtus», _rise, grow, increase_ «Crêta, -ae», f. _Crete_, a large island in the Mediterranean «Crêtaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Cretan_ «crûs, crûris», n. _leg_ «crûstulum, -î», n. _pastry, cake_ «cubîle, -is», n. _bed_ «cultûra, -ae», f. _culture, cultivation_ «cum», conj. with the indic. or subjv. _when; since; although_ (§501.46) «cum», prep, with abl. _with_ (§209) «cupidê», adv. [[«cupidus», _desirous_]], compared «cupidius, cupidissimê», _eagerly_ «cupiditâs, -âtis», f. [[«cupidus», _desirous_]], _desire, longing_ «cupiô, -ere, -îvî» or «-iî, -îtus», _desire, wish_. Cf. «volô» «cûr», adv. _why, wherefore_ «cûra, -ae», f. _care, pains; anxiety_ «cûria, -ae», f. _senate house_ «cûrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«cûra», _care_]], _care for, attend to, look after_ «currô, -ere, cucurrî, cursus», _run_ «currus, -ûs», m. _chariot_ «cursus, -ûs», m. _course_ «custôdiô, -îre, -îvî, -îtus» [[«custôs», _guard_]], _guard, watch_ D «Daedalus, -î», m. _Dæd´alus_, the supposed inventor of the first flying machine «Dâvus, -î», m. _Davus_, name of a slave «dê», prep, with abl. _down from, from; concerning, about, for_ (§209). «quâ dê causâ», _for this reason, wherefore_ «dea, -ae», f. _goddess_ (§461.a) «dêbeô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«dê», _from_, + «habeô», _hold_]], _owe, ought, should_ «decem», indecl. numeral adj. _ten_ «dê-cernô, -ere, -crêvî, -crêtus» [[«dê», _from_, + «cernô», _separate_]], _decide, decree_ «dê-cidô, -ere, -cidî», ---- [[«dê», _down_, + «cadô», _fall_]], _fall down_ «decimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _tenth_ «dêclîvis, -e», adj. _sloping downward_ «dê-dô, -ere, -didî, -ditus», _give up, surrender_, «sê dêdere», _surrender one's self_ «dê-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus» [[«dê», _down_, + «dûcô», _lead_]], _lead down, escort_ «dê-fendô, -ere, -dî, -fênsus», _ward off, repel, defend_ «dê-ferô, -ferre, -tulî, -lâtus» [[«dê», _down_, + «ferô», _bring_]], _bring down; report, announce_ (§426) «dê-fessus, -a, -um», adj. _tired out, weary_ «dê-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«dê», _from_, + «faciô», _make_]], _fail, be wanting; revolt from_ «dê-fîgô, -ere, -fîxî, -fîxus» [[«dê», _down_, + «fîgô», _fasten_]], _fasten, fix_ «dê-iciô, -ere, -iêcî, -iectus» [[«dê», _down_, + «iaciô», _hurl_]], _hurl down; bring down, kill_ «de-inde», adv. _(from thence), then, in the next place_ «dêlectô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _delight_ «dêleô, -êre, -êvî, -êtus», _blot out, destroy_ «dêlîberô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _weigh, deliberate, ponder_ «dê-ligô, -ere, -lêgî, -lêctus» [[«dê», _from_, + «legô», _gather_]], _choose, select_ «Delphicus, -a, -um», adj. _Delphic_ «dêmissus, -a, -um» [[part. of «dêmittô», _send down_]], _downcast, humble_ «dê-mônstrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«dê», _out_, + «mônstrô», _point_]], _point out, show_ «dêmum», adv. _at last, not till then_. «tum dêmum», _then at last_ «dênique», adv. _at last, finally_. Cf. «postrêmô» «dêns, dentis», m. _tooth_ (§247.2.a) «dênsus, -a, -um», adj. _dense, thick_ «dê-pendeô, -êre», ----, ---- [[«dê», _down_, + «pendeô», _hang_]], _hang from, hang down_ «dê-plôrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«dê», intensive, + «plôrô», _wail_]], _bewail, deplore_ «dê-pônô, -ere, -posuî, -positus» [[«dê», _down_, + «pônô», _put_]], _put down_ «dê-scendô, -ere, -dî, -scênsus» [[«dê», _down_, + «scandô», _climb_]], _climb down, descend_ «dê-scrîbô, -ere, -scrîpsî, -scrîptus» [[«dê», _down_, + «scrîbô», _write_]], _write down_ «dêsîderô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _long for_ «dê-siliô, -îre, -uî, -sultus» [[«dê», _down_, + «saliô», _leap_]], _leap down_ «dê-spêrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«dê», _away from_, + «spêrô», _hope_]], _despair_ «dê-spiciô, -ere, -spêxi, -spectus» [[«dê», _down_]], _look down upon, despise_ «dê-sum, -esse, -fuî, -futûrus» [[«dê», _away from_, + «sum», _be_]], _be wanting, lack_, with dat. (§426) «deus, -î», m. _god_ (§468) «dê-volvô, -ere, -volvî, -volûtus» [[«dê», _down_, + «volvô», _roll_]], _roll down_ «dê-vorô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«dê», _down_, + «vorô», _swallow_]], _devour_ «dexter, -tra, -trum» («-tera, -terum»), adj. _to the right, right_. «â dextrô cornû», _on the right wing_ «Diâna, -ae», f. _Diana_, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo «dîcô, -ere, dîxî, dictus» (imv. «dîc»), _say, speak, tell_. Usually introduces indirect discourse (§420.a) «dictâtor, -ôris», m. [[«dictô», _dictate_]], _dictator_, a chief magistrate with unlimited power «diês, -êi» or «diê», m., sometimes f. in sing., _day_ (§467) «dif-ferô, -ferre, distulî, dîlâtus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «ferô», _carry_]], _carry apart; differ_. «differre inter sê», _differ from each other_ «dif-ficilis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», _not_, + «facilis», _easy_]], _hard, difficult_ (§307) «difficultâs, -âtis», f. [[«difficilis», _hard_]], _difficulty_ «dîligenter», adv. [[«dîligêns», _careful_]], compared «dîligentius, dîligentissimê», _industriously, diligently_ «dîligentia, -ae», f. [[«dîligêns», _careful_]], _industry, diligence_ «dî-micô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _fight, struggle_ «dî-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus» [[«dî-», _off_, + «mittô», _send_]], _send away, dismiss, disband_. «dîmittere animum in», _direct one's mind to, apply one's self to_ «Diomêdês, -is», m. _Dî-o-mê´dês_, a name «dis-, dî-», a prefix expressing separation, _off, apart, in different directions_. Often negatives the meaning «dis-cêdô, -ere, -cessî, -cessus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «cêdô», _go_]], _depart from, leave, withdraw, go away_ «dis-cernô, -ere, -crêvî, -crêtus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «cernô», _sift_]], _separate; distinguish_ «disciplîna, -ae», f. _instruction, training, discipline_ «discipulus, -î», m. [[«discô», _learn_]], _pupil, disciple_ «discô, -ere, didicî», ----, _learn_ «dis-cutiô, -ere, -cussî, -cussus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «quatiô», _shake_]], _shatter, dash to pieces_ «dis-pônô, -ere, -posuî, -positus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «pônô», _put_]], _put here and there, arrange, station_ «dis-similis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», _apart_, + «similis», _like_]], _unlike, dissimilar_ (§307) «dis-tribuô, -ere, -uî, -ûtus», _divide, distribute_ «diû», adv., compared «diûtius, diûtissimê», _for a long time, long_ (§477) «dô, dare, dedî, datus», _give_. «in fugam dare», _put to flight_. «alicui negôtium dare», _employ some one_ «doceô, -êre, -uî, -tus», _teach, show_ «doctrîna, -ae», f. [[«doctor», _teacher_]], _teaching, learning, wisdom_ «dolor, -ôris», m. _pain, sorrow_ «domesticus, -a, -um», adj. [[«domus», _house_]], _of the house, domestic_ «domicilium, domici´lî», n. _dwelling; house, abode_. Cf. «domus» «domina, -ae», f. _mistress_ (of the house), _lady_ (§461) «dominus, -î», m. _master_ (of the house), _owner, ruler_ (§462) «domus, -ûs», f. _house, home_. «domî», locative, _at home_ (§468) «dormiô, -îre, -îvî, -îtus», _sleep_ «dracô, -ônis», m. _serpent, dragon_ «dubitô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _hesitate_ «dubius, -a, -um», adj. [[«duo», _two_]], (_moving two ways_), _doubtful, dubious_ «du-centî, -ae, -a», numeral adj. _two hundred_ «dûcô, -ere, dûxî, ductus» (imv. «dûc»), _lead, conduct_ «dum», conj. _while, as long as_ «duo, duae, duo», numeral adj. _two_ (§479) «duo-decim», indecl. numeral adj. _twelve_ «dûrus, -a, -um», adj. _hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter_ «dux, ducis», m. and f. [[cf. «dûcô», _lead_]], _leader, commander_ E «ê» or «ex», prep, with abl. _out of, from, off, of_ (§209) «eburneus, -a, -um», adj. _of ivory_ «ecce», adv. _see! behold! there! here!_ «ê-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus» [[«ê», _out_, + «dûcô», _lead_]], _lead out, draw out_ «ef-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«ex», _thoroughly_, + «faciô», _do_]], _work out; make, cause_ «ef-fugiô, -ere, -fûgî, -fugitûrus» [[«ex», _from_, + «fugiô», _flee_]], _escape_ «egeô, -êre, -uî», ----, _be in need of, lack_, with abl. (§501.32) «ego», pers. pron. _I_; plur. «nôs», _we_ (§480) «ê-gredior, -î, êgressus sum», dep. verb [[«ê», _out of_, + «gradior», _go_]], _go out, go forth_. «ê nâvî êgredî», _disembark_ «ê-iciô, -ere, -iêcî, -iectus» [[«ê», _forth_, + «iaciô», _hurl_]], _hurl forth, expel_ «elementum, -î», n., in plur. _first principles, rudiments_ «elephantus, -î», m. _elephant_ «Êlis, Êlidis», f. _E´lis_, a district of southern Greece «emô, -ere, êmî, êmptus», _buy, purchase_ «enim», conj., never standing first, _for, in fact, indeed._ Cf. «nam» «Ennius, Ennî», m. _Ennius_, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C. «eô, îre, iî» («îvî»), «itûrus», _go_ (§499) «eô», adv. _to that place, thither_ «Êpîrus, -î», f. _Epi´rus_, a district in the north of Greece «eques, -itis», m. [[«equus», _horse_]], _horseman, cavalryman_ «equitâtus, -ûs», m. [[«equitô», _ride_]], _cavalry_ «equus, -î», m. _horse_ «ê-rigô, -ere, -rêxî, -rêctus» [[«ê», _out_, + «regô», _make straight_]], _raise up_ «ê-ripiô, -ere, -uî, -reptus» [[«ê», _out of_, + «rapiô», _seize_]], _seize, rescue_ «ê-rumpô, -ere, -rûpî, -ruptus» [[«ê», _forth_, + «rumpô», _break_]], _burst forth_ «êruptiô, -ônis», f. _sally_ «Erymanthius, -a, -um», adj. _Erymanthian, of Erymanthus_, a district in southern Greece «et», conj. _and, also_. «et ... et», _both ... and_. Cf. «atque, ac, -que» «etiam», adv. (rarely conj.) [[«et», _also_, + «iam», _now_]], _yet, still; also, besides_. Cf. «quoque». «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «Etrûscî, -ôrum», m. _the Etruscans_, the people of Etruria. See map of Italy «Eurôpa, -ae», f. _Europe_ «Eurystheus, -î», m. _Eurys´theus_, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern Greece «ê-vâdô, -ere, -vâsî, -vâsus» [[«ê», _out_, + «vâdô», _go_]], _go forth, escape_ «ex», see «ê» «exanimâtus, -a, -um» [[part. of «exanimô», _put out of breath_ («anima»)]], adj. _out of breath, tired; lifeless_ «ex-cipiô, -ere, -cêpî, -ceptus» [[«ex», _out_, + «capiô», _take_]], _welcome, receive_ «exemplum, -î», n. _example, model_ «ex-eô,-îre,-iî,-itûrus» [[«ex», _out_, + «eô», _go_]], _go out, go forth_ (§413) «ex-erceô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«ex», _out_, + «arceô», _shut_]], _(shut out), employ, train, exercise, use_ «exercitus, -us», m. [[«exerceô», _train_]], _army_ «ex-îstimô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ex», _out_, + «aestimô», _reckon_]], _estimate; think, judge_ (§420.c). Cf. «arbitror, putô» «ex-orior, -îrî, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«ex», _forth_, + «orior», _rise_]], _come forth, rise_ «expedîtus, -a, -um», adj. _without baggage_ «ex-pellô, -ere, -pulî, -pulsus» [[«ex», _out_, + «pellô», _drive_]], _drive out_ «ex-piô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ex», intensive, + «pîo», _atone for_]], _make amends for, atone for_ «explôrâtor, -ôris», m. [[«explôrô», _investigate_]], _spy, scout_ «explôrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _examine, explore_ «ex-pugnô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ex», _out_, + «pugnô», _fight_]], _take by storm, capture_ «exsilium, exsi´lî», n. [[«exsul», _exile_]], _banishment, exile_ «ex-spectô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ex», _out_, + «spectô», _look_]], _expect, wait_ «ex-struô, -ere, -strûxî, -strûctus» [[«ex», _out_, + «struô», _build_]], _build up, erect_ «exterus, -a, -um», adj., compared «exterior, extrêmus» or «extimus», _outside, outer_ (§312) «extrâ», prep, with acc. _beyond, outside of_ «ex-trahô, -ere, -trâxî, -trâctus» [[«ex», _out_, + «trahô», _drag_]], _drag out, pull forth_ «extrêmus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «exterus», _utmost, farthest_ (§312) F «fâbula, -ae», f. _story, tale, fable_ «facile», adv. [[«facilis», _easy_]], compared «facilius, facillimê», _easily_ (§322) «facilis, -e», adj. [[cf. «faciô», _make_]], _easy, without difficulty_ (§307) «faciô, -ere, fêcî, factus» (imv. «fac»), _make, do; cause, bring about_. «impetum facere in», _make an attack upon_. «proelium facere», _fight a battle_. «iter facere», _make a march_ or _journey_. «aliquem certiôrem facere», _inform some one_. «facere verba prô», _speak in behalf of_. Passive «fîô, fierî, factus sum», _be done, happen_. «certior fierî», _be informed_ «fallô, -ere, fefellî, falsus», _trip, betray, deceive_ «fâma, -ae», f. _report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation_ «famês, -is» (abl. «famê»), f. _hunger_ «familia, -ae», f. _servants, slaves; household, family_ «fascês, -ium» (plur. of «fascis»), f. _fasces_ (p. 225) «fastîgium, fastî´gî», n. _top; slope, descent_ «fâtum, -î», n. _fate, destiny_ «faucês, -ium», f. plur. _jaws, throat_ «faveô, -êre, fâvî, fautûrus», _be favorable to, favor_, with dat. (§501.14) «fêlîx, -îcis», adj. _happy, lucky_ «fêmina, -ae», f. woman. Cf. «mulier» «fera, -ae», f. [[«ferus», _wild_]], _wild beast_ «ferâx, -âcis», adj. _fertile_ «ferê», adv. _about, nearly, almost_ «ferô, ferre, tulî, lâtus», _bear_. «graviter» or «molestê ferre», _be annoyed_ (§498) «ferreus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ferrum», _iron_]], _made of iron_ «fidêlis, -e», adj. [[«fidês», _trust_]], _faithful, true_ «fidês, fideî» _or_ «fidê», _trust, faith; promise, word; protection_. «in fidem venîre», _come under the protection_. «in fidê manêre», _remain loyal_ «fîlia, -ae» (dat. and abl. plur. «fîliâbus»), f. _daughter_ (§461.a) «fîlius, fîlî» (voc. sing, «fîlî»), m. _son_ «fînis, -is», m. _boundary, limit, end;_ in plur. _territory, country_ (§243.1) «fînitimus, -a, -um», adj. [[«fînis», _boundary_]], _adjoining, neighboring_. Plur. «fînitimî, -ôrum», m. _neighbors_ «fîô, fierî, factus sum», used as passive of «faciô». See «faciô» (§500) «flamma, -ae», f. _fire, flame_ «flôs, flôris», m. _flower_ «fluctus, -ûs», m. [[of. «fluô», _flow_]], _flood, wave, billow_ «flûmen, -inis», n. [[cf. «fluô», _flow_]], _river_ (§464.2.b) «fluô, -ere, flûxî, fluxus», _flow_ «fluvius, fluvî», m. [[cf. «fluô», _flow_]], _river_ «fodiô, -ere, fôdî, fossus», _dig_ «fôns, fontis», m. _fountain_ (§247.2.a) «fôrma, -ae», f. _form, shape, appearance; beauty_ «Formiae, -ârum», f. _Formiae_, a town of Latium on the Appian Way. See map «forte», adv. [[abl. of «fors», _chance_]], _by chance_ «fortis, -e», adj. _strong; fearless, brave_ «fortiter», adv. [[«fortis», _strong_]], compared «fortius, fortissimê», _strongly; bravely_ «fortûna, -ae», f. [[«fors», _chance_]], _chance, fate, fortune_ «forum, -î», n. _market place_, esp. the «Forum Rômânum», where the life of Rome centered «Forum Appî», _Forum of Appius_, a town in Latium on the Appian Way «fossa, -ae», f. [[cf. «fodiô», _dig_]], _ditch_ «fragor, -ôris», m. [[cf. «frangô», _break_]], _crash, noise_ «frangô, -ere, frêgî, frâctus», _break_ «frâter, -tris», m. _brother_ «fremitus, -ûs», m. _loud noise_ «frequentô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _attend_ «frêtus, -a, -um», adj. _supported, trusting_. Usually with abl. of means «frôns, frontis», f. _front_, «â fronte», _in front_ «frûctus, -ûs», m. _fruit_ «frûmentârius, -a, -um», adj. _pertaining to grain_. «rês frûmentâria», _grain supplies_ «frûmentum, -î», n. _grain_ «frûstrâ», adv. _in vain, vainly_ «fuga, -ae», f. [[cf. «fugiô», _flee_]], _flight_. «in fugam dare», _put to flight_ «fugiô, -ere, fûgî, fugitûrus», _flee, run; avoid, shun_ «fûmô, -are, ------, ------», _smoke_ «fûnis, -is», m. _rope_ «furor, -ôris», m. [[«furô», _rage_]], _madness_. «in furôrem incîdere», _go mad_ G «Gâius, Gâî», m. _Gaius_, a Roman name, abbreviated «C.», English form _Caius_ «Galba, -ae», m. _Galba_, a Roman name «galea, -ae», f. _helmet_ «Gallia, -ae», f. _Gaul_, the country comprising what is now Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and France «Gallicus, -a, -um», adj. _Gallic_ «gallîna, -ae», f. _hen, chicken_ «Gallus, -î», m. _a Gaul_ «gaudium, gaudî», n. _joy_ «Genâva, -ae», f. _Geneva_, a city in Switzerland «gêns, gentis», f. [[cf. «gignô», _beget_]], _race, family; people, nation, tribe_ «genus, -eris», n. _kind, variety_ «Germânia, -ae», f. _Germany_ «Germânus, -î», m. _a German_ «gerô, -ere, gessî, gestus», _carry, wear; wage_. «bellum gerere», _wage war_. «rês gestae», _exploits_. «bene gerere», _carry on successfully_ «gladiâtôrius, -a, -um», adj. _gladiatorial_ «gladius, gladî», m. _sword_ «glôria, -ae», f. _glory, fame_ «Gracchus, -î», m. _Gracchus_, name of a famous Roman family «gracilis, -e», adj. _slender_ (§307) «Graeca, -ôrum», n. plur. _Greek writings, Greek literature_ «Graecê», adv. _in Greek_ «Graecia, -ae», f. _Greece_ «grammaticus, -î», m. _grammarian_ «grâtia, -ae», f. _thanks, gratitude_ «grâtus, -a, -um», adj. _acceptable, pleasing_. Often with dat. (§501.16) «gravis, -ê», adj. _heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest, weighty_ «graviter», adv. [[«gravis», _heavy_]], compared «gravius, gravissimê», _heavily; greatly, seriously_. «graviter ferre», _bear ill, take to heart_ «gubernâtor, -ôris», m. [[«gubernô», _pilot_]], _pilot_ H «habêna, -ae», f. _halter, rein_. «habeô, -êre, -uî, -itus», _have, hold; regard, consider, deem_ «habitô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[cf. «habeô», _have_]], _dwell, abide, inhabit_. Cf. «incolô, vîvô» «hâc-tenus», adv. _thus far_ «Helvêtiî, -ôrum», m. _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «Herculês, -is», m. _Hercules_, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of strength «Hesperidês, -um», f. _the Hesperides_, daughters of Hesperus, who kept the garden of the golden apples «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative adj. and pron. _this_ (of mine); as pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (§481) «hîc», adv. _here_ «hiems, -emis», f. _winter_ «hînc», adv. [[«hîc», _here_]], _from here, hence_ «Hippolytê, -ês», f. _Hippolyte_, queen of the Amazons «ho-diê», adv. [[modified form of «hôc diê», _on this day_]], _to-day_ «homô, -inis», m. and f. _(human being), man, person_ «honestus, -a, -um», adv. [[«honor», _honor_]], _respected, honorable_ «honor, -ôris», m. _honor_ «hôra, -ae», f. _hour_ «Horâtius, Horâ´tî», m. _Horatius_, a Roman name «horribilis, -e», adj. _terrible, horrible_ «hortor, -âri, -âtus sum», dep. verb, _urge, incite, exhort, encourage_ (§493) «hortus, -î», m. _garden_ «hospitium, hospi´tî», n. [[«hospes», _host_]], _hospitality_ «hostis, -is», m. and f. _enemy, foe_ (§465.a) «humilis, -e», adj. _low, humble_ (§307) «Hydra, -ae», f. _the Hydra_, a mythical water snake slain by Hercules I «iaciô, -ere, iêcî, iactus», _throw, hurl_ «iam», adv. _now, already_. «nec iam», _and no longer_ «Iâniculum, -î», n. _the Janiculum_, one of the hills of Rome «iânua, -ae», f. _door_ «ibi», adv. _there, in that place_ «Îcarus, -î», m. _Ic´arus_, the son of Dædalus «ictus, -ûs», m. [[cf. «îcô», _strike_]], _blow_ «îdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pron. [[«is» + «dem»]], _same_ (§481) «idôneus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, fit_ «igitur», conj., seldom the first word, _therefore, then_. Cf. «itaque» «ignis, -is», m. _fire_ (§§243.1; 247. 2.a; 465, 1) «ignôtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «(g)notus», _known_]], _unknown, strange_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (yonder); as pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (§481) «illîc», adv. [[cf. «ille»]], _yonder, there_ «im-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus» [[«in», _against_, + «mittô», _send_]], _send against; let in_ «immolô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«in», _upon_, + «mola», _meal_]], _sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice_ «im-mortâlis, -e», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «mortalis», _mortal_]], _immortal_ «im-mortâlitâs, -âtis», f. [[«immortâlis», _immortal_]], _immortality_ «im-parâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «parâtus», _prepared_]], _unprepared_ «impedîmentum», -î, n. [[«impediô», _hinder_]], _hindrance;_ in plur. _baggage_ «impedîtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «impediô», _hinder_]], _hindered, burdened_ «im-pellô, -ere, -pulî, -pulsus» [[«in», _against_, + «pellô», _strike_]], _strike against; impel, drive, propel_ «imperâtor, -ôris», m. [[«imperô», _command_]], _general_ «imperium, impe´rî», n. [[«imperô», _command_]], _command, order; realm, empire; power, authority_ «imperô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _command, order_. Usually with dat. and an object clause of purpose (§501.41). With acc. object, _levy, impose_ «impetus, -ûs», m. _attack_, «impetum facere in», _make an attack upon_ «im-pônô, -ere, -posui, -positus» [[«in», _upon_, + «pônô», _place_]], _place upon; impose, assign_ «in», prep, with acc. _into, to, against, at, upon, towards;_ with abl. _in, on_. «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «in-», inseparable prefix. With nouns and adjectives often with a negative force, like English _un-, in-_ «in-cautus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «cautus», _careful_]], _off one's guard_ «incendium, incendî», n. _flame, fire_. Cf. «ignis, flamma» «in-cendô, -ere, -dî, -cênsus», _set fire to, burn_ «in-cidô, -ere, -cidî, ----», [[«in», _in, on_, + «cadô», _fall_]], _fall in, fall on; happen_. «in furôrem incidere», _go mad_ «in-cipiô, -ere, -cêpi, -ceptus» [[«in», _on_, + «capiô», _take_]], _begin_ «in-cognitus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «cognitus», _known_]], _unknown_ «in-colô, -ere, -uî, ----», [[«in», _in_, + «colô», _dwell_]], _inhabit; live_ «incolumis, -e», adj. _sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed_ «in-crêdibilis, -e», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «crêdibilis», _to be believed_]], _incredible_ «inde», _from that place, thence_ «induô, -ere, -uî, -ûtus», _put on_ «indûtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «induô», _put on_]], _clothed_ «in-eô, -îre, -iî, -itus» [[«in», _into_, + «eô», _go_]], _go into; enter upon, begin_, with acc. (§413) «în-fâns, -fantis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + *«fâns», _speaking_]], _not speaking_. As a noun, m. and f. _infant_ «în-fêlîx, -îcis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fêlîx», _happy_]], _unhappy, unlucky_ «înfênsus, -a, -um», adj. _hostile_ «în´-ferô, înfer´re, in´tulî, inlâ´tus» [[«in», _against_, + «ferô», _bear_]], _bring against or upon, inflict_, with acc. and dat. (§501.15). «bellum înferre», with dat., _make war upon_ «înferus, -a, -um», adj. _low, below_ (§312). «în-fînîtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fînîtus», _bounded_]], _boundless, endless_ «în-fîrmus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fîrmus», _strong_]], _weak, infirm_ «ingenium, inge´ni», n. _talent, ability_ «ingêns, -entis», adj. _vast, huge, enormous, large_. Cf. «magnus» «in-gredior, -gredî, -gressus sum» [[«in», _in_, + «gradior», _walk_]], _advance, enter_ «inimîcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «amîcus», _friendly_]], _hostile_. As a noun, «inimîcus, -î», m. _enemy, foe_. Cf. «hostis» «initium, ini´tî», _entrance, beginning_ «initus, -a, -um», part. of «ineô». «initâ aestâte», _at the beginning of summer_ «iniûria, -ae», f. [[«in», _against_, + «iûs», _law_]], _injustice, wrong, injury_. «alicui iniûriâs înferre», _inflict wrongs upon some one_ «inopia, -ae», f. [[«inops», _needy_]], _want, need, lack_ «in-opînâns, -antis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «opînâns», _thinking_]], _not expecting, taken by surprise_ «inquit», _said he, said she_. Regularly inserted in a direct quotation «in-rigô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _irrigate, water_ «in-rumpô, -ere, -rûpî, -ruptus» [[«in», _into_, + «rumpô», _break_]], _burst in, break in_ «in-ruô, -ere, -ruî,----» [[«in», _in_, + «ruô», _rush_]], _rush in_ «în-sequor, -sequî, -secûtus sum», dep. verb [[«in», _on_, + «sequor», _follow_]], _follow on, pursue_ «în-signe, -is», n. _badge, decoration_ (§465.b) «însignis, -e», adj. _remarkable, noted_ «înstâns, -antis», adj. [[part. of «însto», _be at hand_]], _present, immediate_ «în-stô, -âre, -stitî, -statûrus» [[«in», _upon_, + «stô», _stand_]], _stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on_ «înstrûmentum, -î», n. _instrument_ «în-struô, -ere, -strûxî, -strûctus» [[«in», _on_, + «struô», _build_]], _draw up_ «însula, -ae», f. _island_ «integer, -gra, -grum», _untouched, whole; fresh, new_ «intellegô, -ere, -lêxî, -lêctus» [[«inter», _between_, +«legô», _choose_]], _perceive, understand_ (§420.d) «intentô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _aim; threaten_ «inter», prep. with acc. _between, among; during, while_ (§340) «interfectus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «inter-ficiô», _kill_]], _slain, dead_ «inter-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«inter», _between_, + «faciô», _make_]], _put out of the way, kill_. Cf. «necô, occîdô, trucîdô» «interim», adv. _meanwhile_ «interior, -ius», adj. _interior, inner_ (§315) «inter-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus», _leave off, suspend_ «interpres, -etis», m. and f. _interpreter_ «inter-rogô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _question_ «inter-sum, -esse, -fuî, -futûrus» [[«inter», _between_, +«sum», _be_]], _be present, take part in_, with dat. (§501.15) «inter-vâllum, -î», n. _interval, distance_ «intrâ», adv. and prep. with acc. _within, in_ «intrô, -âre, -âvi, -âtus», _go into, enter_ «in-veniô, -îre, -vênî, -ventus» [[«in», _upon_, +«veniô», _come_]], _find_ «invîsus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «invideô», _envy_]], _hated, detested_ «Iolâus, -î», m. _I-o-lâ´us_, a friend of Hercules «ipse, -a, -um», intensive pron. _that very, this very; self, himself, herself, itself_, (§481) «îra, -ae», f. _wrath, anger_ «îrâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «îrâscor», _be angry_]], _angered, enraged_ «is, ea, id», demonstrative adj. and pron. _this, that; he, she, it_ (§481) «iste, -a, -ud», demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (of yours), _he, she, it_ (§481) «ita», adv. _so, thus_. Cf. «sîc» and «tam» «Italia, -ae», f. _Italy_ «ita-que», conj. _and so, therefore_ «item», adv. _also_ «iter, itineris», n. _journey, march, route; way, passage_ (§§247.1.a; 468). «iter dare», _give a right of way, allow to pass_. «iter facere», _march_ (see p. 159) «iubeô, -êre, iussî, iussus», _order, command_. Usually with the infin. and subj. acc. (§213) «iûdex, -icis», m. and f. _judge_ (§464.1) «iûdicô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«iûdex», _judge_]], _judge, decide_ (§420.c) «Iûlia, -ae», _Julia_, a Roman name «Iûlius, Iûlî», m. _Julius_, a Roman name «iungô, -êre, iûnxî, iûnctus», _join; yoke, harness_ «Iûnô, -ônis», f. _Juno_, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter «Iuppiter, Iovis», m. _Jupiter_, the supreme god «iûrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _swear, take an oath_ «iussus, -a, -um», part. of «iubeô», _ordered_ L «L.», abbreviation for «Lûcius» «labefactus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «labefaciô», _cause to shake_]], _shaken, weakened, ready to fall_ «Labiênus, -î», m. _La-bi-e´nus_, one of Cæsar's lieutenants «labor, -ôris», m. _labor, toil_ «labôrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«labor», _labor_]], _labor; suffer, be hard pressed_ «lacrima, -ae», f. _tear_ «lacus, -ûs» (dat. and abl. plur. «lacubus»), m. _lake_ «laetê», adv. [[«laetus», _glad_]], compared «laetius, laetissimê», _gladly_ «laetitia, -ae», f. [[«laetus», _glad_]], _joy_ «laetus, -a, -um», adj. _glad, joyful_ «lapis, -idis», m. _stone_ (§§247.2.a; 464.1) «Lâr, Laris», m.; plur. «Larês, -um» (rarely «-ium»), _the Lares_ or _household, gods_ «lâtê, »adv. [[«lâtus», _wide_]], compared «lâtius, lâtissimê», _widely_ «Latinê», adv. _in Latin_. «Latînê loquî», _to speak Latin_ «lâtitûdô, -inis», f. [[«lâtus», _wide_]], _width_ «Lâtôna, -ae», f. _Latona_, mother of Apollo and Diana «latus, -a, -um», adj. _wide_ «lâtus, -eris», n. _side, flank_. «ab utrôque latere», _on each side_ «laudô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«laus», _praise_]], _praise_ «laurea, -ae», f. _laurel_ «laureâtus, -a, -um», adj. _crowned with laurel_ «laus, laudis», f. _praise_ «lectulus, -î», m. _couch, bed_ «lêgâtus, -î», m. _ambassador; lieutenant_ «legiô, -ônis», f. [[cf. «legô», _gather_]], (_body of soldiers_), _legion_, about 3600 men (§464.2.a) «legiônârius, -a, -um», adj. _legionary_. Plur. «legiônariî, -ôrum», m. _the soldiers of the legion_ «legô, -ere, lêgî, lêctus», _read_ «lênis, -e», adj. _gentle, smooth, mild_ «lêniter», adv. [[«lênis», _gentle_]], compared «lênius, lênissimê», _gently_ «Lentulus, -i», m. _Lentulus_, a Roman family name «leô, -ônis», m. _lion_ «Lernaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Lernæean_, of Lerna, in southern Greece «Lesbia, -ae», f. _Lesbia_, a girl's name «levis, -e», adj. _light_ «lêx, lêgis», f. _measure, law_ «libenter», adv. [[«libêns», _willing_]], compared «libentius, libentissimê», _willingly, gladly_ «lîber, -era, -erum», adj. _free_ (§469.b) «lîberî, -ôrum», m. [[«lîber», _free_]], _children_ «lîberô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«lîber», _free_]], _set free, release, liberate_ «lîbertâs, -âtis», f. [[«lîber», _free_]], _freedom, liberty_ «lîctor, -ôris», m. _lictor_ (p. 225) «lîmus, -î», m. _mud_ «littera, -ae», f. _a letter_ of the alphabet; in plur. _a letter, epistle_ «lîtus, -oris», n. _seashore, beach_ «locus, -î», m. (plur. «locî» and «loca», m. and n.), _place, spot_ «longê», adv. [[«longus», _long_]], comp. «longius, longissimê», _a long way off; by far_ «longinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«longus», _long_]], _distant, remote_ «longitûdô, -inis», f. [[«longus», _long_]], _length_ «longus, -a, -um», adj. _long_ «loquor, loqui, locûtus sum», dep. verb, _talk, speak_ «lôrîca, -ae», f. [[«lôrum», _thong_]], _coat of mail, corselet_ «lûdô, -ere, lûsî, lûsus», _play_ «lûdus, -î», m. _play; school_, the elementary grades. Cf. «schola» «lûna, -ae», f. _moon_ «lûx, lûcis», f. (no gen. plur.), _light_. «prîma lûx», _daybreak_ «Ly:dia, -ae», f. _Lydia_, a girl's name M «M.», abbreviation for «Mârcus» «magicus, -a, -um», adj. _magic_ «magis», adv. in comp. degree [[«magnus», _great_]], _more, in a higher degree_ (§323) «magister, -trî», m. _master, commander; teacher_ «magistrâtus, -ûs», m. [[«magister», _master_]], _magistracy; magistrate_ «magnitûdô, -inis», f. [[«magnus», _great_]], _greatness, size_ «magnopere», adv. [[abl. of «magnum opus»]], compared «magis, maximê», _greatly, exceedingly_ (§323) «magnus, -a, -um», adj., compared «maior, maximus», _great, large; strong, loud_ (§311) «maior, maius, -ôris», adj., comp. of «magnus», _greater, larger_ (§311) «maiôrês, -um», m. plur. of «maior», _ancestors_ «mâlô, mâlle, mâluî, ----» [[«magis», _more_, + «volô», _wish_]], _wish more, prefer_ (§497) «malus, -a, -um», adj., compared «peior, pessimus», _bad, evil_ (§311) «mandô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«manus», _hand_, + «dô», _put_]], _(put in hand), intrust; order, command_ «maneô, -êre, mânsî, mânsûrus», _stay, remain, abide_ «Mânlius, Mânlî», m. _Manlius_, a Roman name «mânsuêtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «mânsuêscô», _tame_]], _tamed_ «manus, -ûs», f. _hand; force, band_ «Mârcus, -î», m. _Marcus, Mark_, a Roman first name «mare, -is», n. (no gen. plur.), _sea_. «mare tenêre», _be out to sea_ «margô, -inis», m. _edge, border_ «marîtus, -î», m. _husband_ «Marius, Marî», m. _Marius_, a Roman name, esp. _C. Marius_, the general «Mârtius, -a, -um», adj. _of Mars_, esp. the _Campus Martius_ «mâter, -tris», f. _mother_ «mâtrimônium, mâtrimô´nî», n. _marriage_. «in mâtrimônium dûcere», _marry_ «mâtûrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _hasten_. Cf. «contendô», «properô» «mâtûrus, -a, -um», adj. _ripe, mature_ «maximê», adv. in superl. degree [[«maximus», _greatest_]], compared «magnopere, magis, maximê», _especially, very much_ (§323) «maximus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «magnus», _greatest, extreme_ (§311) «medius, -a, -um», adj. _middle part; middle, intervening_ «melior, -ius, -ôris», adj., comp. of «bonus», _better_ (§311) «melius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimê», _better_ (§323) «memoria, -ae», f. [[«memor», _mindful_]], _memory_. «memoriâ tenêre», _remember_ «mêns, mentis», f. _mind_. Cf. «animus» «mênsis, -is», m. _month_ (§247.2. a) «mercâtor, -ôris», m. [[«mercor», _trade_]], _trader, merchant_ «merîdiânus, -a, -um», adj. [[«merîdiês», _noon_]], _of midday_ «merîdiês, ----» (acc. «-em», abl. «-ê»), m. [[«medius», _mid_, + «diês», _day_]], _noon_ «metus, -ûs», m. _fear, dread_ «meus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. _my, mine_ (§98) «mîles, -itis», m. _soldier_ (§464.1) «mîlitâris, -e», adj. [[«mîles», _soldier_]], _military_. «rês mîlitâris», _science of war_ «mîlitô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«mîles», _soldier_]], _serve as a soldier_ «mîlle», plur. «mîlia, -ium», numeral adj. and subst. _thousand_ (§479) «minimê», adv. in superl. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimê», _least, very little; by no means_ (§323) «minimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», _least, smallest_ (§311) «minor, minus, -ôris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», _smaller, less_ (§311) «Mînôs, -ôis», m. _Minos_, a king of Crete «minus», adv. in comp. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimê», _less_ (§323) «Minyae, -ârum», m. _the Minyae_, a people of Greece «mîrâbilis, -e», adj. [[«mîror», _wonder at_]], _wonderful, marvelous_ «mîror, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb [[«mîrus», _wonderful_]], _wonder, marvel, admire_ «mîrus, -a, -um», adj. _wonderful_ «Mîsênum, -î», _Mise´num_, a promontory and harbor on the coast of Campania. See map «miser, -era, -erum», adj. _wretched, unhappy, miserable_ «missus, -a, -um», part. of «mittô», _sent_ «mittô, -ere, mîsî, missus», _send_ «modicus, -a, -um» [[«modus», _measure_]], _modest, ordinary_ «modo», adv. [[abl. of «modus», _measure_, with shortened «o»]], _only, merely, just now_. «modo ... modo», _now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes_ «modus, -î», m. _measure; manner, way; kind_ «moenia, -ium», n. plur. [[cf. «mûniô», _fortify_]], _walls, ramparts_ «molestê», adv. [[«molestus», _troublesome_]], compared «molestius, molestissimê», _annoyingly_. «molestê ferre», _to be annoyed_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying, unpleasant_ (§501.16) «moneô, -êre, -uî, -itus», _remind, advise, warn_ (§489) «môns, montis», m. _mountain_ (§247.2. a) «mônstrum, -î», n. _monster_ «mora, -ae», f. _delay_ «moror, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb [[«mora», _delay_]], _delay, linger; impede_ «mors, mortis», f. [[cf. «morior», _die_]], _death_ «môs, môris», m. _custom, habit_ «môtus, -ûs», m. [[cf. «moveô», _move_]], _motion, movement_. «terrae môtus», _earthquake_ «moveô, -êre, môvî, môtus», _move_ «mox», adv. _soon, presently_ «mulier, -eris», f. _woman_ «multitûdô, -inis», f. [[«multus», _much_]], _multitude_ «multum (multô)», adv. [[«multus», _much_]], compared «plûs, plûrimum», _much_ (§477) «multus, -a, -um», adj., compared «plûs, plûrimus», _much_; plur. _many_ (§311) «mûniô, -îre, -îvî or -iî, -îtus», _fortify, defend_ «mûnîtiô, -ônis», f. [[«mûniô», _fortify_]], _defense, fortification_ «mûrus, -î», m. _wall_. Cf. «moenia» «mûsica, -ae», f. _music_ N «nam», conj. _for_. Cf. «enim» «nam-que», conj., a strengthened «nam», introducing a reason or explanation, _for, and in fact; seeing that_ «nârrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _tell, relate_ «nâscor, nâscî, nâtus sum», dep. verb, _be born, spring from_ «nâtûra, -ae», f. _nature_ «nâtus», part. of «nâscor» «nauta, -ae», m. [[for «nâvita», from «nâvis», _ship_]], _sailor_ «nâvâlis, -e», adj. [[«nâvis», _ship_]], _naval_ «nâvigium, nâvi´gî», n. _ship, boat_ «nâvigô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«nâvis», _ship_, + «agô», _drive_]], _sail, cruise_ «nâvis, -is» (abl. -î or -e), f. _ship_ (§243.1). «nâvem cônscendere», _embark, go on board_. «nâvem solvere», _set sail_. «nâvis longa», _man-of-war_ «nê», conj. and adv. _in order that not, that_ (with verbs of fearing), _lest; not_. «nê ... quidem», _not even_ «-ne», interrog. adv., enclitic (see §§16, 210). Cf. «nônne» and «num» «nec» or «neque», conj. [[«nê», _not_, + «que», _and_]], _and not, nor_. «nec ... nec» or «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «necessârius, -a, -um», adj. _needful, necessary_ «necô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[cf. nex, _death_]], _kill_. Cf. «interficiô, occîdô, trucîdô» «negô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _deny, say not_ (§420.a) «negôtium, negô´tî», n. [[«nec», _not_, + «ôtium», _ease_]], _business, affair, matter_. «alicui negôtium dare», _to employ some one_ «Nemaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Neme´an, of Neme´a_, in southern Greece «nêmo», dat. «nêminî» (gen. «nûllîus», abl. «nûllô», supplied from «nûllus»), m. and f. [[«nê», _not_, + «homô», _man_]], _(not a man), no one, nobody_ «Neptûnus, -î», m. _Neptune_, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter «neque», see «nec» «neuter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-trîus», dat. «-trî»), adj. _neither_ (of two) (§108) «nê-ve», conj. adv. _and not, and that not, and lest_ «nihil», n. indecl. [[«nê», _not_, + «hîlum», _a whit_]], _nothing_. «nihil posse», _to have no power_ «nihilum, -î», n., see «nihil» «Niobê, -ês», f. _Ni´obe_, the queen of Thebes whose children were destroyed by Apollo and Diana «nisi», conj. [[«nê», _not_, + «sî», _if_]], _if not, unless, except_ «nôbilis, -e», adj. _well known; noble_ «noceô, -êre, -uî, -itûrus» [[cf. «necô», _kill_]], _hurt, injure_, with dat. (§501.14) «noctû», abl. used as adv. [[cf. «nox», _night_]], _at night, by night_ «Nôla, -ae», f. _Nola_, a town in central Campania. See map «nôlô, nôlle, nôluî», ---- [[«ne», _not_, + «volô», _wish_]], _not to wish, be unwilling_ (§497) «nômen, -inis», n. [[cf. «nôscô», _know_]], _(means of knowing), name_ «nôminô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«nômen», _name_]], _name, call_. Cf. «appellô, vocô» «nôn», adv. [[«nê», _not_, + «ûnum», _one_]], _not_. «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «nôn-dum», adv. _not yet_ «nôn-ne», interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, _not?_ (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «num» «nôs», pers. pron. _we_ (see «ego») (§480) «noster, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. _our, ours_. Plur. «nostrî, -ôrum», m. _our men_ (§98) «novem», indecl. numeral adj. _nine_ «novus, -a, -um», adj. _new_. «novae rês», _a revolution_ «nox, noctis», f. _night_, «multâ nocte», _late at night_ «nûllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î») adj. [[«nê», _not_, + «ûllus», _any_]], _not any, none, no_ (§108) «num», interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «nônne». In indir. questions, _whether_ «numerus, -î», m. _number_ «numquam», adv. [[«nê», _not_, + «umquam», _ever_]], _never_ «nunc», adv. _now_. Cf. «iam» «nûntiô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«nûntius», _messenger_]], _report, announce_ (§420.a) «nûntius, nûntî», m. _messenger_ «nûper», adv. _recently, lately, just now_ «nympha, -ae», f. _nymph_ O «ob», prep. with acc. _on account of_. In compounds it often means _in front of, against_, or it is intensive. «quam ob rem», _for this reason_ (§340) «obses, -idis», m. and f. _hostage_ «ob-sideô,-êre,-sêdî, -sessus» [[«ob», _against_, + «sedeô», _sit_]], _besiege_ «obtineô, -êre, -uî, -tentus» [[«ob», _against_, + «teneô», _hold_]], _possess, occupy, hold_ «occâsiô, -ônis», f. _favorable opportunity, favorable moment_ «occâsus, -ûs», m. _going down, setting_ «occîdô, -ere, -cîdî, -cîsus» [[«ob», _down_, + «caedô», _strike_]], _strike down; cut down, kill_. Cf. «interficiô, necô» «occupô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ob», _completely_, + «capiô», _take_]], _seize, take possession of, occupy_. Cf. «rapio» «oc-currô, -ere, -currî, -cursus» [[«ob», _against_ + «currô», _run_]], _run towards; meet_, with dat. (§426) «ôceanus, -î», m. _the ocean_ «octô», indecl. numeral adj. _eight_ «oculus, -î», m. _eye_ «officium, offi´cî», n. _duty_ «ôlim», adv. _formerly, once upon a time_ «ômen, -inis», n. _sign, token, omen_ «ô-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus» [[«ob», _over, past_, + «mittô», _send_]], _let go, omit_. «consilium omittere», _give up a plan_ «omnînô», adv. [[«omnis», _all_]], _altogether, wholly, entirely_ «omnis, -e», adj. _all, every._ Cf. «tôtus» «onerâria, -ae», f. [[«onus», _load_]], with «nâvis» expressed or understood, _merchant vessel, transport_ «onus, -eris», n. _load, burden_ «opîniô, -ônis», f. [[«opînor», _suppose_]], _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «oppidânus, -î», m. [[«oppidum», _town_]], _townsman_ «oppidum, -î», n. _town, stronghold_ «opportûnus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, opportune, favorable_ «op-primô, -ere, -pressî, -pressus» [[«ob», _against_, + «premô», _press_]], (_press against_), _crush; surprise_ «oppugnâtiô, -ônis», f. _storming, assault_ «oppugnô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«ob», _against_, + «pugnô» _fight_]], _fight against, assault, storm, assail_ «optimê», adv. in superl. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimê», _very well, best of all_ (§323) «optimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «bonus, melior, optimus», _best, most excellent_ (§311) «opus, -eris», n. _work, labor, task_ (§464.2.b) «ôrâculum, -î», n. [[«ôrô», _speak_]], _oracle_ «ôrâtor, -ôris», m. [[«ôrô», _speak_]], _orator_ «orbis, -is», m. _ring, circle_. «orbis terrârum», _the earth, world_ «orbita, -ae», f. [[«orbis», _wheel_]], _rut_ «Orcus, -î», m. _Orcus, the lower world_ «ôrdô, -inis», m. _row, order, rank_ (§247.2.a) «orîgo, -inis», f. [[«orior», _rise_]], _source, origin_ «orior, -îrî, ortus sum», dep. verb, _arise, rise, begin; spring, be born_ «ôrnâmentum, -î», n. [[«ôrnô», _fit out_]], _ornament, jewel_ «ôrnâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «ôrnô», _fit out_]] _fitted out; adorned_ «ôrnô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _fit out, adorn_ P «P.», abbreviation for «Pûblius» «paene», adv. _nearly, almost_ «palûdâmentum, -î», n. _military cloak_ «palûs, -ûdis», f. _swamp, marsh_ «pânis, -is», m. _bread_ «pâr, paris», adj. _equal_ (§471. III) «parâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «parô», _prepare_]], _prepared, ready_ «parcô, -ere, peper´cî» («parsî»), «parsûrus», _spare_, with dat. (§501.14) «pâreô, -êre, -uî, ----», _obey_, with dat. (§501.14) «parô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _prepare for, prepare; provide, procure_ «pars, partis», f. _part, share; side, direction_ «parum», adv., compared «minus, minimê», _too little, not enough_ (§323) «parvus, -a, -um», adj., compared «minor, minimus», _small, little_ (§311) «passus, -ûs», m. _step, pace_. «mîlle passuum», _thousand paces, mile_ (§331.b) «pateô, -êre, patuî, ----», _lie open, be open; stretch, extend_ «pater, -tris», m. _father_ (§464.2.a) «patior, -î, passus sum», dep. verb, _bear, suffer, allow, permit_ «patria, -ae», f. [[cf. «pater», _father_]], _fatherland_, (_one's_) _country_ «paucus, -a, -um», adj. (generally plur.), _few, only a few_ «paulisper», adv. _for a little while_ «paulô», adv. _by a little, little_ «paulum» adv. _a little, somewhat_ «pâx, pâcis», f. (no gen. plur.), _peace_ «pecûnia, -ae», f. [[«pecus», _cattle_]], _money_ «pedes, -itis», m. [[«pês», _foot_]], _foot soldier_ «pedester, -tris, -tre», adj. [[«pês», _foot_]], _on foot; by land_ «peior, peius, -ôris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», _worse_ (§311) «pellis, -is», f. _skin, hide_ «penna, -ae», f. _feather_ «per», prep. with acc. _through, by means of, on account of_. In composition it often has the force of _thoroughly, completely, very_ (§340) «percussus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «percutiô», _strike through_]], _pierced_ «per-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus» [[«per», _through_, + «dûcô», _lead_]], _lead through_. «fossam perdûcere», _to construct a ditch_ «per-exiguus, -a, -um», adj. [[«per», _very_, + «exiguus», _small_]], _very small, very short_ «perfidus, -a, -um», adj. _faithless, treacherous, false_ «per-fringô, -ere, -frêgî, -frâctus» [[«per», _through_, «frangô», _break_]], _shatter_ «pergô, -ere, perrêxî, perrêctus» [[«per», _through_, + «regô», _conduct_]], _go on, proceed, hasten_ «perîculum, -î», n. _trial, test; danger_ «peristy:lum, -î», n. _peristyle_, an open court with columns around it «perîtus, -a, -um», adj. _skillful_ «perpetuus, -a, -um», adj. _perpetual_ «Perseus, -eî», _Perseus_, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danaë «persôna, -ae», f. _part, character, person_ «per-suâdeô, -êre, -suâsî, -suâsus» [[«per», _thoroughly_, + «suâdeô», _persuade_]], _persuade, advise_, with dat. (§501.14), often with an object clause of purpose (§501.41) «per-terreô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«per», _thoroughly_, + «terreô», _frighten_]], _thoroughly terrify, alarm_ «per-veniô, -îre, -vênî, -ventus» [[«per», _through_, + «veniô», _come_]], _arrive, reach, come to_ «pês, pedis», m. _foot_. «pedem referre», _retreat_ (§247.2.a) «pessimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», _worst_ (§311) «petô, -ere, -îvî or -iî, -îtus», _strive for, seek, beg, ask; make for, travel to_. Cf. «postulô, quaerô, rogô» «Pharsâlus, -î», f. _Pharsa´lus_ or _Pharsa´lia_, a town in Thessaly, near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C. «philosophia, -ae», f. _philosophy_ «philosophus, -î», m. _philosopher_ «pictus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «pingô», _paint_]], _colored, variegated_ «pîlum, -î», n. _spear, javelin_ (§462.b) «piscîna, -ae», f. [[«piscis», _fish_]], _fish pond_ «piscis, -is», m. _fish_ «pîstor, -ôris», m. _baker_ «placeô. -êre, -uî, -itus», _please, be pleasing_, with dat. (§501.14) «plânitiês, -êî», f. [[«plânus», _level_]], _plain_ «plânus, -a, -um», adj. _level, flat_ «plênus, -a, -um», _full_ «plûrimum», adv. in superl. degree, compared «multum, plûs, plûrimum», _very much_. «plûrimum valêre», _be most influential_ (§322) «plûrimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «multus, plûs, plûrimus», _most, very many_ (§311) «plûs, plûris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «multus, plûs, plûrimus»; sing. n. as substantive, _more_; plur. _more, several_ (§311) «pluteus, -î», m. _shield, parapet_ «poena, -ae», f. _punishment, penalty_ «poêta, -ae», m. _poet_ «pompa, -ae», f. _procession_ «Pompêiî, -ôrum», m. _Pompeii_, a city of Campania. See map «Pompêius, Pompê´î», m. _Pompey_, a Roman name «pômum, -î», n. _apple_ «pônô, -ere, posuî, positus», _put, place_. «castra pônere», _pitch camp_ «pôns, pontis», m. _bridge_ (§247.2.a) «popîna, -ae», f. _restaurant_ «populus, -î», m. _people_ «Porsena, -ae», m. _Porsena_, king of Etruria, a district of Italy. See map «porta, -ae», f. _gate, door_ «portô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _bear, carry_ «portus, -ûs», m. [[cf. «porta», _gate_]], _harbor_ «possideô, -êre, -sêdî, -sessus», _have, own, possess_ «possum, posse, potuî, ----», irreg. verb [[«potis», _able_, + «sum», _I am_]], _be able, can_ (§495). «nihil posse», _have no power_ «post», prep, with acc. _after, behind_ (§340) «posteâ», adv. [[«post», _after_, + «eâ», _this_]], _afterwards_ («posterus»), «-a, -um», adj., compared «posterior, postrêmus» or «postumus», _following, next_ (§312) «postquam», conj. _after, as soon as_ «postrêmô», adv. [[abl. of «postrêmus», _last_]], _at last, finally_. Cf. «dêmum, dênique» (§322) «postrîdiê», adv. [[«posterô», _next_, + «diê», _day_]], _on the next day_ «postulô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _ask, demand, require_. Cf. «petô, quaerô, rogô» «potentia, -ae», f. [[«potêns», _able_]], _might, power, force_ «prae-beô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«prae», _forth_, + «habeô», _hold_]], _offer, give_ «praeda, -ae», f. _booty, spoil, plunder_ «prae-dîcô, -ere, -dîxî, -dictus» [[«prae», _before_, + «dîcô», _tell_]], _foretell, predict_ «prae-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«prae», _before_, + «faciô», _make_]], _place in command_, with acc. and dat. (§501.15) «prae-mittô, -ere, -mîsî, -missus» [[«prae», _forward_, + «mittô», _send_]], _send forward_ «praemium, praemî», n. _reward, prize_ «praeruptus, -a, -um» [[part. of «prae-rumpô», _break off_]], _broken off, steep_ «praesêns, -entis», adj. _present, immediate_ «praesertim», adv. _especially, chiefly_ «praesidium, praesi´di», n. _guard, garrison, protection_ «prae-stô, -âre, -stitî, -stitus» [[«prae», _before_, + «sto», _stand_]], (_stand before_), _excel, surpass_, with dat. (§501.15); _show, exhibit_ «prae-sum, -esse, -fuî, -futûrus» [[«prae», _before_, + «sum», _be_]], _be over, be in command of_, with dat. (§501.15) «praeter», prep, with acc. _beyond, contrary to_ (§340) «praetereâ», adv. [[«praeter», _besides_, + «eâ», _this_]], _in addition, besides, moreover_ «praetextus, -a, -um», adj. _bordered, edged_ «praetôrium, praetô´rî», n. _prætorium_ «prandium, prandî», n. _luncheon_ «premô, -ere, pressî, pressus», _press hard, compress; crowd, drive, harass_ («prex, precis»), f. _prayer_ «prîmô», adv. [[«prîmus», _first_]], _at first, in the beginning_ (§322) «prîmum», adv. [[«prîmus», _first_]], _first_. «quam primum», _as soon as possible_ «prîmus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «prior, prîmus», _first_ (§315) «prînceps, -cipis», m. [[«prîmus», _first_, + «capiô», _take_]], (_taking the first place_), _chief, leader_ (§464.1) «prior, prius, -ôris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «prîmus», _former_ (§315) «prîstinus, -a, -um», adj. _former, previous_ «prô», prep, with abl. _before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of; instead of, as_ (§209). In composition, _forth, forward_ «prô-cêdô, -ere, -cussî, -cessûrus» [[«prô», _forward_, + «cêdô», _go_]], _go forward, proceed_ «procul», adv. _far, afar off_ «prô-currô, -ere, -currî» («-cucurrî»), «-cur-sus» [[«prô», _forward_, + «currô», _run_]], _run forward_ «proelium, proeli», n. _battle, combat_. «proelium committere», _join battle_. «proelium facere», _fight a battle_ «profectiô, -ônis», f. _departure_ «proficîscor, -î, -fectus sum», dep. verb, _set out, march_. Cf. «êgredior, exeô» «prô-gredior, -î, -gressus sum», dep. verb [[«prô», _forth_, + «gradior», _go_]], _go forth, proceed, advance_. Cf. «pergô, prôcêdô» «prôgressus», see «prôgredior» «prohibeô, -êre, -uî, -itus» [[«prô», _forth, away from_, + «habeô», _hold_]], _keep away from, hinder, prevent_ «prô-moveô, -êre, -môvî, -môtus» [[«prô», _forward_, + «moveô», _move_]], _move forward, advance_ «prô-nûntiô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«prô», _forth_, + «nûntiô», _announce_]], _proclaim, declare_ «prope», adv., compared «propius, proxi-mê», _nearly_. Prep, with acc. _near_ «prô-pellô, -ere, -pulî, -pulsus» [[«prô», _forth_, + «pellô», _drive_]], _drive forth; move, impel_ «properô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«properus», _quick]], go quickly, hasten_. Cf. «contendô, maturô» «propinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«prope», _near]], near, neighboring_ «propior, -ius, -ôris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «proximus», _nearer_ (§315) «propius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximê», _nearer_ (§323) «propter», prep. with acc. _on account of, because of_ (§340) «prô-scrîbô, -ere, -scrîpsî, -scriptus» [[«prô», _forth_, + «scribô», _write_]], _proclaim, publish_. Cf. «prônûntiô» «prô-sequor, -sequî, -secûtus sum», dep. verb [[«prô», _forth_, + «sequor», _follow]], escort, attend_ «prô-sum, prôdesse, prôfuî, prôfutûrus» [[«prô», _for_, + «sum», _be_]], _be useful, benefit_, with dat. (§§496; 501.15) «prô-tegô, -ere, -têx=i], -têctus» [[«prô», _in front_, + «tegô», _cover]], cover in front, protect_ «prôvincia, -ae», f. _territory, province_ «proximê», adv. in superl. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximê», _nearest, next; last, most recently_ (§323) «proximus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «propior, proximus», _nearest, next_ (§315) «pûblicus, -a, -um», adj. [[«populus»,_people_]], _of the people, public_, «res pûblica», _the commonwealth_ «puella, -ae», f. [[diminutive of «puer», _boy_]], _girl, maiden_ «puer, -eri», m. _boy; slave_ (§462.c) «pugna, -ae», f _-fight, battle._ Cf. «proelium» «pugnô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«pugna», _battle]], fight_. Cf. «contendô, dîmicô» «pulcher, -chra, -chrum», adj. _beautiful, pretty_ (§§469.b; 304) «Pullô, -ônis», m. _Pullo_, a centurion «pulsô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _strike, beat_ «puppis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-î»), f. _stern_ of a ship, _deck_ «pûrê», adv. [[«pûrus», _pure_]], comp. «pûrius», _purely_ «pûrgô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _cleanse, clean_ «purpureus, -a, -um», adj. _purple, dark red_ «putô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _reckon, think_ (§420,_c_). Cf. «arbitror, exîstimô» «Py:thia, -ae», f. _Pythia_, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi Q «quâ dê causâ», _for this reason, wherefore_ «quâ rê», _therefore, for this reason_ «quaerô, -ere, -sîvî, -sîtus», _seek, ask, inquire_. Cf. «petô, postulô, rogô» «quâlis, -e», interrog. pronom. adj. _of what sort, what kind of_. «talis ... qualis», _such ... as_ «quam», adv. _how_; after a comparative, _than_; with a superlative, translated _as ... as possible_, «quam prîmum», _as soon as possible_ «quantus, -a, -um», adj. [[«quam», _how]], how great, how much_, «tantus ... quantus», _as great as_ «quârtus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«quattuor», _four_]], _fourth_ «quattuor», indecl. numeral adj. _four_ «quattuor-decim», indecl. numeral adj. _fourteen_ «-que», conj., enclitic, _and_ (§16). Cf. «ac, atque, et» «quî, quae, quod», rel. pron. and adj. _who, which, what, that_ (§482) «quia», conj. _because_. Cf. «quod» «quîdam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam)», indef. pron. and adj. _a certain one, a certain, a_ (§485). «quidem», adv. _to be sure, certainly, indeed_, «nê ... quidem», _not even_ «quiês, -êtis», f. _rest, repose_ «quiêtus, -a, -um», adj. _quiet, restful_ «quîndecim», indecl. numeral adj. _fifteen_ «quîngentî, -ae, -a», numeral adj. _five hundred_ «quînque», indecl. numeral adj. _five_ «quîntus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _fifth_ «quis (quî), quae, quid (quod)», interrog. pron. and adj. _who? what? which?_ (§483). «quis (quî), qua (quae), quid (quod)», indef. pron. and adj., used after «sî, nisi, nê, num», _any one, anything, some one, something, any, some_ (§484). «quisquam, quicquam» or «quidquam» (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. _any one_ (at all), _anything_ (at all) (§486). «quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque)», indef. pron. and adj. _each, each one, every_ (§484). «quô», interrog. and rel. adv. _whither, where_ «quô», conj. _in order to, that_, with comp. degree (§350). «quod», conj. _because, in that_. Cf. «quia» «quoque», conj., following an emphatic word, _also, too_. Cf. «etiam» «quot-annîs», adv. [[«quot», _how many_ + «annus», _year_]], _every year, yearly_ «quotiêns», interrog. and rel. adv. _how often? as often as_ R «râdîx, -îcis», f. _root; foot_ «rapiô, -ere, -uî, -tus», _seize, snatch_ «rârô», adv. [[«rârus», _rare_]], _rarely_ «rârus, -a, -um», adj. _rare_ «re-» or «red-», an inseparable prefix, _again, back, anew, in return_ «rebelliô, -ônis», f. _renewal of war, rebellion_ «recêns, -entis», adj. _recent_ «re-cipiô, -ere, -cêpî, -ceptus» [[«re-», _back_, + «capiô», _take_]], _take back, receive_. «sê recipere», _withdraw, retreat_ «re-clînâtus, -a, -um», part. of «reclînô», _leaning back_ «re-creâtus, -a, -um», part. of «recreô», _refreshed_ «rêctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «regô», _keep straight_]], _straight, direct_ «re-cûsô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _refuse_ «red-âctus, -a, -um», part. of «redigô», _reduced, subdued_ «red-eô, -îre, -iî, -itus» [[«red-», _back_, + «eô», _go_]], _go back, return_ (§413). Cf. «revertô» «reditus, -ûs», m. [[cf. «redeô», _return_]], _return, going back_ «re-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus» [[«re-», _back_, + «dûcô», _lead_]], _lead back_ «re-ferô, -ferre, rettulî, -lâtus» [[«re-», _back_, + «ferô», _bear_]], _bear back; report_. «pedem referre», _withdraw, retreat_ «re-ficiô, -ere, -fêcî, -fectus» [[«re-», _again_, + «faciô», _make_]], _make again, repair_. «sê reficere», _refresh one's self_ «rêgîna, -ae», f. [[«rêx», _king_]], _queen_ «regiô, -ônis», f. _region, district_ «rêgnum, -î», n. _sovereignty; kingdom_ «regô, -ere, rêxî, rêctus» [[cf. «rêx», _king_]], _govern, rule_ (§490) «re-iciô, -ere, -iêcî, -iectus» [[«re-», _back_, + «iaciô», _hurl_]], _hurl back; throw away_ «re-linquô, -ere, -lîquî, -lictus» [[«re-», _behind_, + «linquô», _leave_]], _leave behind, leave, abandon_ «reliquus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «relinquô», _leave_]], _left over, remaining_. As a noun, plur. _the rest_ «remôtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «re-moveô», _remove_]], _remote, distant_ «re-moveô, -êre, -môvî, -motus» [[«re-», _back_, + «moveô», _move_]], _remove_ «rêmus, -î», m. _oar_ «re-periô, -îre, repperî, repertus», _find_ «re-portô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«re-», _back_, + «portô», _carry_]], _carry back, bring back, win, gain_ «rês, reî», f. _thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance_ (§467). «quam ob rem», _for this reason_. «rês adversae», _adversity_. «rês frûmentâria», _grain supplies_. «rês gestae», _exploits_. «rês militâris», _science of war_. «rês pûblica», _the commonwealth_. «rês secundae», _prosperity_ «re-scindô, -ere, -scidî, -scissus» [[«re-», _back_, + «scindô», _cut_]], _cut off, cut down_ «re-sistô, -ere, -stitî», ---- [[«re-», _back_, + «sistô», _cause to stand_]], _oppose, resist_, with dat. (§501.14) «re-spondeô, -êre, -spondî, -spônsus» [[«re-», _in return_, + «spondeô», _promise_]], answer, reply (§420.a) «re-vertô, -ere, -î», ----, or dep. verb «re-vertor, -î, -sus sum» [[«re-», _back_, + «vertô», _turn_]], _turn back, return_. Usually active in the perf. system «re-vinciô, -îre, -vînxî, -vînctus» [[«re-», _back_, + «vinciô», _bind_]], _fasten_ «rêx, rêgis», m. [[cf. «regô», _rule_]], _king_ «Rhênus, -î», m. _the Rhine_, a river of Germany «rîpa, -ae», f. _bank_ «rogô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _ask_. Cf. «petô, postulô, quaerô» «Rôma, -ae», f. _Rome_. See map «Rômânus, -a, -um», adj. [[«Rôma», _Rome_]], _Roman_, follows its noun. As a noun, m. and f. _a Roman_ «rosa, -ae», f. _rose_ «rôstrum, -î», n. _beak_ of a ship. In plur., _the rostra_, the speaker's stand in the Roman Forum «rota, -ae», f. _wheel_ «Rubicô, -ônis», m. _the Rubicon_, a river in northern Italy. See map «rûmor, -ôris», m. _report, rumor_ «rûrsus», adv. [[for «reversus», _turned back_]], _again, in turn_ «rûs, rûris» (locative abl. «rûrî», no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n. _the country_ (§501.36.1). Cf. «ager, patria, terra» S «Sabînus, -a, -um», adj. _Sabine_. As a noun, m. and f. _a Sabine_. The Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. See map «sacrum, -î», n. [[«sacer», _consecrated_]], _something consecrated, sacrifice;_ usually in plur., _religious rites_ «saepe», adv., compared «saepius, saepissimê», _often, frequently_ «saevus, -a, -um», adj. _cruel, savage_ «sagitta, -ae», f. _arrow_ «saliô, -îre, -uî, saltus», _jump_ «salûs, -ûtis», f. _safety; health_. «salûtem dîcere», _send greetings_ «salûtô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«salûs», _health_]], _greet, salute_ «salvê», imv. of «salveô», _hail, greetings_ «sanguis, -inis», m. _blood_ (§247.2.a] «sânitâs, -âtis», f. [[«sânus», _sound_]], _health, sanity_ «sapiêns, -entis», adj. [[part. of «sapiô», _be wise_]], _wise, sensible_ «satis», adv. and indecl. noun, _enough, sufficient, sufficiently_ «saxum, -î», n. _rock, stone_ «scelus, -eris», n. _crime, sin_ «scêptrum, -î», n. _scepter_ «schola, -ae», f. _school_, the higher grades. Cf. «lûdus» «scientia, -ae», f. [[«sciêns», _knowing_]], _skill, knowledge, science_ «scindô, -ere, scidî, scissus», _cut, tear_ «sciô, -îre, -îvî, -îtus», _know_ (§420.b). Cf. «cognôscô» «scrîbô, -ere, scrîpsî, scrîptus», _write_ «scûtum, -î», n. _shield, buckler_ «sê», see «suî» «sêcum» = «sê» + «cum» «secundus, -a, -um», adj. [[«sequor», _follow_]], _following, next, second; favorable, successful_. «rês secundae», _prosperity_ «sed», conj. _but, on the contrary_. «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «sêdecim», indecl. numeral adj. _sixteen_ «sedeô, -êre, sêdî, sessus», _sit_ «semper», adv. _always, forever_ «senâtus, -ûs», m. [[cf. «senex», _old_]], _council of elders, senate_ «sentiô, -îre, sênsî, sênsus», _feel, know, perceive_ (§420.d). Cf. «intellegô», «videô» «septem», indecl. numeral adj. _seven_ «septimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _seventh_ «sequor, -î, secûtus sum», dep. verb, _follow_ (§493) «serpêns, -entis», f. [[«serpô», _crawl_]], _serpent, snake_ «sertae, -ârum», f. plur. _wreaths, garlands_ «servitûs, -ûtis», f. [[«servus», _slave_]], _slavery, servitude_ «servô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _save, rescue, keep_ «servus, -î», m. _slave_ «sêsê», emphatic for «sê» «sex», indecl. numeral adj. _six_ «Sextus, -î», m. _Sextus_, a Roman first name «sî», conj. _if_ «sîc», adv. _thus, in this way_. Cf. «ita», «tam» «Sicilia, -ae», f. _Sicily_. See map «sîc-ut», _just as, as if_ «signifer, -erî», m. [[«signum», _standard_, + «ferô», _bear_]], _standard bearer_ (p. 224) «signum, -î», n. _ensign, standard; signal_ «silva, -ae», f. _wood, forest_ «similis, -e», adj., compared «similior, simillimus», _like, similar_ (§307) «simul», adv. _at the same time_ «simul ac» or «simul atque», conj. _as soon as_ «sine», prep. with abl. _without_ (§209) «singulî, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _one at a time, single_ (§334) «sinister, -tra, -trum», adj. _left_ «Sinuessa, -ae», f. _Sinues´sa_, a town in Campania. See map «sitis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-î», no plur.), f. _thirst_ «situs, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sinô», _set_]], _situated, placed, lying_ «socius, socî», m. _comrade, ally_ «sôl, sôlis» (no gen. plur.), m. _sun_ «soleô, -êre, solitus sum», semi-dep. verb, _be wont, be accustomed_ «sollicitus, -a, -um», adj. _disturbed, anxious_ «sôlum», adv. [[«sôlus», _alone_]], _alone, only_. «nôn sôlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «sôlus, -a, -um» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), adj. _alone, only_ (§108) «solvô, -ere, solvî, solûtus», _loosen, unbind_. «nâvem solvere», _set sail_ «somnus, -î», m. _sleep_ «soror, -ôris», f. _sister_ «spatium, spatî», n. _space, distance; time; opportunity_ «spectâculum, -î», n. [[«spectô», _look at_]], _show, spectacle_ «spectô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _look at, witness_ «spêrô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[spês, _hope_]], _hope, expect_ (§420.c) «spês, speî», f. _hope_ (§273.2) «splendidê», adv. [[«splendidus»]], compared «splendidius, splendidissimê», _splendidly, handsomely_ «splendidus, -a, -um», adj. _brilliant, gorgeous, splendid_ «Stabiânus, -a, -um», _Stabian_ «stabulum, -î», n. [[cf. «stô», _stand_]], _standing place, stable, stall_ «statim», adv. [[cf. «stô», _stand_]], _on the spot, at once, instantly_ «statua, -ae», f. [[«sistô», _place, set_]], _statue_ «statuô, -ere, -uî, -ûtus» [[«status», _station_]], _decide, determine_ «stilus, -î», m. _iron pencil, style_ (p. 210) «stô, -âre, stetî, status», _stand_ «strâtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sternô», _spread_]], _paved_ (of streets) «strepitus, -ûs», m. [[«strepô», _make a noise_]], _noise, din_ «stringô, -ere, strînxî, strictus», _bind tight; draw, unsheathe_ «studeô, -êre, -uî, ----», _give attention to, be eager_, with dat. (§501.14) «studium, studî», n. [[cf. «studeô», _be eager for_]], _eagerness, desire, zeal, devotion_ «stultus, -a, -um», adj. _foolish, stupid_ «Stymphâlis, -idis», adj. f. _Stymphalian, of Stympha´lus_, a lake in southern Greece «Stymphâlus, -î», m. _Stympha´lus_, a district of southern Greece with a town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name «suâdeô, -êre, -sî, -sus», _advise, recommend_, with subjv. of purpose (§501.41) «sub», prep, with acc. and abl. _under, below, up to; at_ or _to the foot of_ «sub-igô, -ere, -êgî, -âctus» [[«sub», _under_, + «agô», _drive_]], _subdue, reduce_ «subitô», adv. [[«subitus», _sudden_]], _suddenly_ «sub-sequor, -î, -secûtus sum», dep. verb [[«sub», _below_, + «sequor», _follow_]], _follow close after, follow up_ «suc-cêdô, -ere, -cessî, -cessus» [[«sub», _below_, + «cêdô», _go_]], _follow, succeed_ «suî», reflexive pron. _of himself (herself, itself, themselves)_ (§480). «sêcum» = «sê» + «cum». «sêsê», emphatic form of «sê» «sum, esse, fuî, futûrus», irreg. verb, _be; exist_ (§494) «summus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «superus, superior, suprêmus» or «summus» (§312), _supreme, highest; best, greatest_. «in summô colle», _on the top of the hill_ «sûmô, -ere, sûmpsî, sûmptus», _take up; assume, put on_. «sûmere supplicium dê», _inflict punishment on_ «super», prep. with acc. and abl. _over, above_ «superbia, -ae», f. [[«superbus», _proud_]], _pride, arrogance_ «superbus, -a, -um», adj. _proud, haughty_ «superior», comp. of «superus» «superô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«superus», _above_]], _go over; subdue, overcome; surpass, excel_ «super-sum, -esse, -fuî, ----», _be over, survive_, with dat. (§501.15) «superus, -a, -um», adj., compared «superior, suprêmus» or «summus», _above, upper_ (§312) «supplicium, suppli´cî», n. [[«supplex», _kneeling in entreaty_]], _punishment, torture_. «supplicium sûmere dê», _inflict punishment on_. «supplicium dare», _suffer punishment_ «surgô, -ere, surrêxî», ---- [[«sub», _from below_, + «regô», _straighten_]], _rise_ «sus-cipiô, -ere, -cêpî, -ceptus» [[«sub», _under_, + «capiô», _take_]], _undertake, assume, begin_ «suspicor, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb, _suspect, surmise, suppose_ «sus-tineô, -êre, -tinuî, -tentus» [[«sub», _under_, + «teneô», _hold_]], _hold up, bear, sustain, withstand_ «suus, -a, -um», reflexive possessive adj. and pron., _his, her, hers, its, their, theirs_ (§98) T «T.», abbreviation of «Titus» «taberna, -ae», f. _shop, stall_ «tabula, -ae», f. _tablet_ for writing «tâlis, -e», adj. _such_. «tâlis ... quâlis», _such ... as_ «tam», adv. _so, such_. Cf. «ita, sîc» «tamen», adv. _yet, however, nevertheless_ «tandem», adv. _at length, finally_ «tangô, -ere, tetigî, tâctus», _touch_ «tantum», adv. [[«tantus»]], _only_ «tantus, -a, -um», adj. _so great, such_. «tantus ... quantus», _as large as_ «tardus, -a, -um», adj. _slow, late; lazy_ «Tarpêia, -ae», f. _Tarpeia_ (pronounced _Tar-pê´ya_), the maiden who opened the citadel to the Sabines «Tarquinius, Tarqui´nî», _Tarquin_, a Roman king. With the surname «Superbus», _Tarquin the Proud_ «Tarracîna, -ae», f. _Tarraci´na_, a town in Latium. See map «taurus, -î», m. _bull_ «têctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «tegô», _cover_]], _covered, protected_ «têlum, -î», n. _weapon_ «temerê», adv. _rashly, heedlessly_ «tempestâs, -âtis», f. [[«tempus», _time_]] _storm, tempest_ «templum, -î», n. _temple, shrine_ «tempto, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _try, test; make trial of, attempt_ «tempus, -oris», n. _time_ (§464.2.b). «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «teneô, -êre, tenuî», ----, _hold, keep_ «tergum, -î», n. _back_, «â tergô», _on the rear_, «tergum vertere», _retreat, flee_ «ternî, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _three each, by threes_ (§334) «terra, -ae», f. _earth, ground, land_. «orbis terrârum», _the whole world_ «terror, -ôris», m. [[cf. «terreô», _frighten_]], _dread, alarm, terror_ «tertius, -a, -um», numeral adj. _third_ «Teutonês, -um», m. _the Teutons_ «theâtrum, -î», n. _theater_ «Thêbae, -ârum», f. _Thebes_, a city of Greece «Thêbânî, -ôrum», m. _Thebans_, the people of Thebes «thermae, -ârum», f. plur. _baths_ «Thessalia, -ae», f. _Thessaly_, a district of northern Greece «Thrâcia, -ae», f. _Thrace_, a district north of Greece «Tiberius, Tibe´rî», m. _Tiberius_, a Roman first name «tîbîcen, -înis», m. [[cf. «tîbia», _pipe_]], _piper, flute player_ «timeô, -êre, -uî», ----, _fear, be afraid of_. Cf. «vereor» «timor, -ôris», m. [[cf. «timeô», _fear_]], _fear, dread, alarm_. Cf. «metus» «Tîryns, Tîrynthis», f. _Ti´ryns_, an ancient town in southern Greece, where Hercules served Eurystheus «toga, -ae», f. [[cf. «tegô», _cover_]], _toga_ «tormentum, -î», n. _engine of war_ «totiêns», adv. _so often, so many times_ «tôtus, -a, -um», (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), adj. _all, the whole, entire_ (§108) «trâ-dô, -ere, -didî, -ditus» [[«trâns», _across_, + «dô», _deliver_]], _give up, hand over, surrender, betray_ «trâ-dûcô, -ere, -dûxî, -ductus» [[«trâns», _across_, + «dûcô», _lead_]], _lead across_ «trahô, -ere, trâxî, trâctus», _draw, pull, drag_. «multum trahere», _protract, prolong much_ «trâ-iciô, -ere, -iêcî, -iectus» [[«trâns», _across_, + «iaciô», _hurl_]], _throw across; transfix_ «trâ-nô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«trâns», _across_, + «nô», _swim_]], _swim across_ «trâns», prep. with acc. _across, over_ (§340) «trâns-eô, -îre, -iî, -itus» [[«trâns», _across_, + «eô», _go_]], _go across, cross_ (§413) «trâns-fîgô, -ere, -fîxî, -fîxus» [[«trâns», _through_, + «fîgô», _drive_]], _transfix_ «trânsitus», ---- (acc. «-um», abl. «-û»), m. [[cf. «trânseô», _cross over_]], _passage across_ «três, tria», numeral adj. _three_ (§479) «trîduum, trîduî», n. [[«três», _three_, + «diês», _days_]], _three days' time, three days_ «trîgintâ», indecl. numeral adj. _thirty_ «triplex, -icis», adj. _threefold, triple_ «trîstis, -e», adj. _sad; severe, terrible_ «trîstitia, -ae», f. [[«trîstis», _sad_]], _sadness, sorrow_ «triumphô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«triumphus», _triumph_]], _celebrate a triumph_ «triumphus, -î», m. _triumphal procession, triumph_. «triumphum agere», _celebrate a triumph_ «trucîdô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _cut to pieces, slaughter._ Cf. «interficiô», «necô», «occîdô» «tû, tuî» (plur. «vôs»), pers. pron. _thou, you_ (§480) «tuba, -ae», f. _trumpet_ «Tullia, -ae», f. _Tullia_, a Roman name «tum», adv. _then, at that time_ «turris, -is», f. _tower_ (§465.2) «tûtus, -a, -um», adj. _safe_ «tuus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (§98) U «ubi», rel. and interrog. adv. _where, when_ «ûllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), adj. _any_ (§108) «ulterior, -ius, -ôris», adj. in comp. degree, superl. «ultimus», _farther, more remote_ (§315) «ultimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree (see «ulterior»), _farthest_ (§315) «umbra, -ae», f. _shade_ «umerus, -î», m. _shoulder_ «umquam», adv. _ever, at any time_ «ûnâ», adv. [[«ûnus», _one_]], _in the same place, at the same time_ «ûndecimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«ûnus», _one_, + «decimus», _tenth_]], _eleventh_ «undique», adv. _from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere_ «ûnus, -a, -um» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), numeral adj. _one; alone_ (§108) «urbs, -is», f. _city_ (§465.a) «urgeô, -êre, ursî», ----, _press upon, crowd, hem in_ «ûrus, -î», m. _wild ox, urus_ «ûsque», adv. _all the way, even_ «ûsus, -ûs», m. _use, advantage_ «ut», conj. with the subjv. _that, in order that, that not_ (with verbs of fearing), _so that, to_ (§350.1) «uter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-îus», dat. «-î»), interrog. pron. _which of two? which?_ (§108) «uterque, utraque, utrumque», indef. pron. _each of two, each, both_. «ab utrâque parte», _on both sides_ «ûtilis, -e», adj. [[«ûtor», _use_]], _useful_ «utrimque», adv. [[«uterque», _each of two_]], _on each side, on either hand_ «ûva, -ae», f. _grape, bunch of grapes_ «uxor, -ôris», f. _wife_ V «vâgîna, -ae», _sheath, scabbard_ «vagor, -ârî, -âtus sum», dep. verb, _wander_ «valeô, -êre, -uî, -itûrus», _be powerful, be well_; in the imperative as a greeting, _farewell_. «plûrimum valêre», _have the most power_ «valêtûdô, -inis», f. [[«valeô», _be well_]], _health_ «validus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «valeô», _be strong_]], _strong, able, well_ «vallês, -is», f. _valley_ «vâllum, -î», n. _rampart, earthworks_ «varius, -a, -um», adj. _bright-colored_ «vâstô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«vâstus», _empty_]], _(make empty), devastate, lay waste_ «vectîgal, -âlis», n. _tax, tribute_ «vehementer», adv. [[«vehemêns», _eager_]], compared «vehementius, vehementissimê», _eagerly, vehemently_ «vehô, -ere, vexî, vectus», _convey, carry_. In the passive often in the sense of _ride, sail_ «vel», conj. _or_. «vel ... vel», _either ... or_. Cf. «aut» «vêlôcitâs, -âtis», f. [[«vêlôx», _swift_]], _swiftness_ «vêlôx, -ôcis», adj. _swift, fleet_ «vêlum, -î», n. _sail_ «vêndô, -ere, vêndidî, vênditus», _sell_ «veniô, -îre, vênî, ventus», _come, go_ «ventus, -î», m. _wind_ «verbum, -î», n. _word_. «verba facere prô», _speak in behalf of_ «vereor, -êrî, -itus sum», dep. verb, _fear; reverence, respect_ (§493). Cf. «timeô» «Vergilius, Vergi´lî», m. _Vergil_, the poet «vergô, -ere, ----, ----», _turn, lie_ «vêrô», adv. [[«vêrus», _true_]], _in truth, surely;_ conj. _but, however_. «tum vêrô», _then you may be sure_, introducing the climax of a story «vertô, -ere, -tî, -sus», _turn, change_. «tergum vertere», _retreat, flee_ «vêrus, -a, -um», _true, actual_ «vesper, -erî», m. _evening_ «vester, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (§98) «vestîgium, vestî´gî», n. [[cf. «vestîgô», _track_]], _footstep, track, trace_ «vestîmentum, -î», n. [[«vestis», _clothing_]], _garment_ «vestiô, -îre, -îvî, -îtus» [[«vestis», _clothing_]], _clothe, dress_ «vestis, -is», f. _clothing, attire, garment, robe_ «vestîtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «vestiô», _clothe_]], _clothed_ «Vesuvius, Vesu´vi», m. _Vesuvius_, the volcano near Pompeii. See map «veterânus, -a, -um», adj. _old, veteran_ «vetô, -âre, -uî, -itus», _forbid, prohibit_ «vexô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _trouble, annoy_ «via, -ae», f. _way, road, street; way, manner_. Cf. «iter» «viâtor, -ôris», m. [[«via»]], _traveler_ «victor, -ôris», m. [[«vincô», _conquer_]], _conqueror, victor_. In apposition, with adj. force _ victorious_ «victôria, -ae», f. [«victor», _victor_], _victory_ «vîcus, -î», m. _village_ «videô, -êre, vîdî, vîsus», _see, perceive_. Pass. _be seen; seem_ (§420.d) «vigilia,-ae», f. [[«vigil» _awake_]], watch. «dê tertia vigilia», _about the third watch_ «vîgintî», indecl. numeral adj. _twenty_ «vîlicus, -î», m. [[«vîlla», _farm_]], _steward, overseer of a farm_ «vîlla, -ae», f. _farm, villa_ «vinciô, -îre, vînxî, vînctus», _bind, tie, fetter_ «vincô, -ere, vîcî, victus», _conquer, defeat, overcome_. Cf. «subigô, superô» «vînea, -ae», f. _shed_ (p. 219) «vînum, -î», n. _wine_ «violenter», adv. [[«violentus», _violent_]], compared «violentius, violentissimê», _violently, furiously_ «vir, virî», m. _man, husband; hero_ (§462.c) «virîlis, -e», adj. [[vir, _man_]], _manly_ «virtûs, -ûtis», f. [[«vir», _man_]], _manliness; courage, valor; virtue_ (§464.1) «vîs», («vîs»), f. _strength, power, might, violence_ (§468) «vîta, -ae», f. [[cf. «vîvô», _live_]], _life_, «vîtam agere», _spend or pass life_ «vîto, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _shun, avoid_ «vîvô, -ere, vîxî, ----», _live_. Cf. «habitô, incolô» «vîvus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «vîvô», _live_]], _alive, living_ «vix», adv. _scarcely, hardly_ «vocô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus», _call, summon, invite_. Cf. «appellô, nôminô» «volô, -âre, -âvî, -âtûrus», _fly_ «volô, velle, voluî, ----», irreg. verb, _will, be willing; wish_ (§497). Cf. «cupio» «volûmen, -inis», n. _roll, book_ «Vorênus, -î», m. _Vore´nus_, a centurion «vôs», pers. pron.; _you_ (see «tû») (§480) «vôtum, -î», n. [[neut. part. of «voveô», _vow_]], _vow, pledge, prayer_ «vôx, vôcis», f. [[cf. «vocô», _call_]], _voice, cry; word_ «vulnerô, -âre, -âvî, -âtus» [[«vulnus», _wound_]], _wound, hurt_ «vulnus, -eris», n. _wound, injury_ «vulpês, -îs», f. _fox_ [Illustration: EQUES ROMANUS] ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin exercises. For details not given here, reference may be made to the Latin-English vocabulary. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate the conjugation. A «a, an», _commonly not translated_ «able (be)», possum, posse, potuî, ----(§495) «abode», domicilium, domici´lî, _n._ «about» (_adv._), circiter «about» (_prep._), dê, _with abl._ «about to», _expressed by fut. act. part._ «abundance», côpia, -ae, _f._ «across», trâns, _with acc._ «active», âcer, âcris, âcre «advance», prôgredior, 3 «advantage», ûsus, -ûs, _m._ «advise», moneô, 2 «after» (_conj_.), postquam; _often expressed by the perf. part._ «after» (_prep._), post, _with acc._ «against», in, contrâ, _with acc._ «aid», auxilium, auxi´lî, _n._ «all», omnis, -e; tôtus, -a, -um (§108) «allow», patior, 3 «ally», socius, socî, _m._ «almost», paene; ferê «alone», ûnus, -a, -um; sôlus, -a, -um (§108) «already», iam «also», quoque «always», semper «ambassador», lêgâtus, -î, _m._ «among», apud, _with acc._ «ancient», antîquus, -a, -um «and», et; atque (ac); -que «and so», itaque «Andromeda», Andromeda, -ae, _f._ «angry», îrâtus, -a, um «animal», animal, -âlis, _n._ «announce», nûntiô, 1 «annoying», molestus, -a, -um «another», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «any», ûllus, -a, -um (§108) «any one, anything», quisquam, quicquam _or_ quidquam (§486) «appearance», fôrma, -ae, _f._ «appoint», creô, 1 «approach», adpropinquô, 1, _with dat._ «are», _used as auxiliary, not translated_; _as a copula_, sum (§494) «arise», orior, 4 «arm», bracchium, bracchî, _n._ «armed», armâtus, -a, -um «arms», arma, -ôrum, _n. plur._ «army», exercitus, -ûs, _m._ «around», circum, _with acc._ «arrival», adventus, -us, _m._ «arrow», sagitta, -ae, _f._ «art of war», rês mîlitâris «as possible», _expressed by_ quam _and superl._. «ask», petô, 3; quaerô, 3; rogô, 1 «assail», oppugnô, 1 «at», in, _with acc. or abl.; with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition_ (§268); _time when, abl._ «at once», statim «at the beginning of summer», initâ aestâte «Athens», Athênae, -ârum, _f._ «attack», impetus, -us, _m._ «attempt», cônor, 1; temptô, 1 «away from», â _or_ ab, _with abl._ B «bad», malus, -a, -um «baggage», impedîmenta, -ôrum, _n. plur._ «bank», rîpa, -ae, _f._ «barbarians», barbarî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «battle», proelium, proelî, _n._; pugna, -ae. _f._ «be», sum (§494) «be absent, be far», absum (§494) «be afraid», timeô, 2; vereor, 2 «be away», absum (§494) «be in command of», praesum, _with dat._ (§§494, 426) «be informed», certior fîô «be off, be distant», absum (§494) «be without», egeô, _with abl._ (§180) «beast (wild)», fera, -ae, _f._ «beautiful», pulcher, -chra, -chrum «because», quia; quod «because of», propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause_ «before, heretofore» (_adv._), anteâ «before» (_prep._), ante, _with acc._; prô, _with abl._ «begin», incipiô, 3 «believe», crêdô, 3, _with dat._ (§153) «belong to», _predicate genitive_ (§409) «best», optimus, _superl. of_ bonus «betray», trâdô, 3 «better», melior, _comp. of_ bonus «between», inter, _with acc._ «billow», fluctus, -us, _m._ «bird», avis, -is, _f._ (§243.1) «blood», sanguis, -inis, _m._ «body», corpus, -oris. _n._ «bold», audâx, -âcis; fortis, -e «boldly», audâcter; fortiter «boldness», audâcia, -ae, _f._ «booty», praeda, -ae, _f._ «both, each» (_of two_), uterque, utraque, utrumque «both ... and», et ... et «boy», puer, -erî, _m._ «brave», fortis, -e «bravely», fortiter «bridge», pôns, pontis, _m._ «bright», clârus, -a, -um «bring back», reportô, 1 «bring upon», înferô, -ferre, -tulî, -lâtus, _with acc. and dat._ (§426) «brother», frâter, -tris, _m._ «building», aedificium, aedifi´cî. _n._ «burn», cremô, 1; incendô, 3 «business», negôtium, negô´tî, _n._ «but, however», autem, sed «by», â, ab, _with abl._; _denoting means, abl. alone_; _sometimes implied in a participle_ «by night», noctû C «Cæsar», Caesar, -aris, _m._ «calamity», calamitâs, -âtis, _f._ «call», vocô, 1; appellô, 1; nôminô, 1 «call together», convocô, 1 «camp», castra, -ôrum, _n. plur._ «can, could», possum, posse, potuî, ---- (§495) «capture», capiô, 3; occupô, 1 «care», cûra, -ae, _f._ «care for», cûrô, 1 «careful», attentus, -a, -um «carefulness», dîligentia, -ae, _f._ «carry», ferô, ferre, tulî, lâtus (§498); portô, 1 «carry on», gerô, 3 «cart», carrus, -î, _m._ «cause», causa, -ae, _f._ «cavalry», equitâtus, -ûs, _m._ «cease», cessô, 1 «Cepheus», Cêpheus, -î, _m._ «certain (a)», quîdam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (§485) «chicken», gallîna, -ae, _f._ «chief», prînceps, -cipis, _m._ «children», lîberî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «choose», dêligô, 3 «choose, elect», creô, 1 «citizen», cîvis, -is, _m. and f._ (§243.1) «city», urbs, urbis, _f._ «clear», clârus, -a, -um «cohort», cohors, -rtis, _f._ «come», veniô, 4 «command», imperô, 1, _with dat._ (§45); iubeô, 2; praesum, _with dat._ (§426) «commit», committô, 3 «commonwealth», rês pûblica, reî pûblicae «concerning», dê, _with abl._ «conquer», superô, 1; vincô, 3 «construct» (_a ditch_), perdûcô, 3 «consul», cônsul, -ulis, _m._ «contrary to», contrâ, _with acc._ «Corinth», Corinthus, -î, _f._ «Cornelia», Cornêlia, -ae, _f._ «Cornelius», Cornêlius, Cornê´li, _m._ «corselet», lôrîca, -ae, _f._ «cottage», casa, -ae, _f._ «country», _as distinguished from the city_, rûs, rûris, _n.; as territory_, fînês, -ium, _m., plur. of_ fînis «courage», virtûs, -ûtis, _f._ «crime», scelus, -eris, _n._ «cross», trânseô, 4 (§499) «crown», corôna, -ae, _f._ D «daily», cotîdiê «danger», perîculum, -î, _n._ «daughter», fîlia, -ae, _f._ (§67) «day», diês, -êî, _m._ «daybreak», prîma lûx «dear», cârus, -a, -um «death», mors, mortis, _f._ «deed», rês, reî, _f._ «deep», altus, -a, -um «defeat», calamitâs, -âtis, _f._ «defend», dêfendô, 3 «delay» (_noun_), mora, -ae, _f._ «delay» (_verb_), moror, 1 «demand», postulô, 1 «dense», dênsus, -a, -um «depart», discêdô, 3; exeô, 4; proficîscor, 3 «dependent», cliêns, -entis, _m._ «design», cônsilium, consi´lî _n._ «desire», cupiô, 3 «destroy», dêleô, 2 «Diana», Diâna, -ae, _f._ «differ», differô, differre, distulî, dîlâtus (§498) «different», dissimilis, -e «difficult», difficilis, -e «difficulty», difficultâs, -âtis, _f._ «diligence», dîligentia, -ae, _f._ «dinner», cêna, -ae, _f._ «disaster», calamitâs, -âtis, _f._ «distant (be)», absum, -esse, âfuî, âfutûrus (§494) «ditch», fossa, -ae, _f._ «do», agô, 3; faciô, 3; _when used as auxiliary, not translated_ «down from», dê, _with abl._ «drag», trahô, 3 «drive», agô, 3 «dwell», habitô, 1; incolô, 3; vîvô, 3 «dwelling», aedificium, aedifi´cî, _n._ E «each», quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (§484) «each of two», uterque, utraque, utrumque «each other», inter _with acc. of a reflexive_ «eager», âcer, âcris, âcre; alacer, alacris, alacre «eager (be)», studeô, 2 «eagerness», studium, studî, _n._ «eagle», aquila, -ae, _f._ «easily», facile «easy», facilis, -e «either ... or», aut ... aut «empire», imperium, impe´rî, _n._ «employ», negôtium dô «encourage», hortor, 1 «enemy», hostis, -is, _m. and f._; inimîcus, -î, _m._ «enough», satis «entire», tôtus, -a, -um (§108) «expectation», opîniô, -ônis, _f._ «eye», oculus, -î, _m._ F «faithless», perfidus, -a, -um «famous», clârus, -a, -um «far», longê «farmer», agricola, -ae, _m._ «farther», ulterior, -ius «father», pater, patris, _m._ «fatherland», patria, -ae, _f._ «favor», faveô, 2 «favorable», idôneus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um «fear», metus, -ûs, _m._; timor, -ôris, _m._ «fear, be afraid», timeô, 2 «few», paucî, -ae, -a «field», ager, agrî, _m._ «fifteen», quîndecim «fight», contendô, 3; pugnô, 1 «find», reperiô, 4 «finish», cônficiô, 3 «fire», ignis, -is, _m._ (§243.1) «firmness», cônstantia, -ae, _f._ «first», prîmus, -a, -um «flee», fugiô, 3 «flight», fuga, -ae, _f._ «fly», volô, 1 «foe», see «enemy» «follow close after», subsequor, 3 «food», cibus, -î, _m._ «foot», pês, pedis, _m._ «foot-soldier», pedes, -itis, _m._ «for» (_conj._), enim, nam «for» (_prep._), _sign of dat._; dê, prô, _with abl.; to express purpose_, ad, _with gerundive; implied in acc. of time and of extent of space_ «for a long time», diû «forbid», vetô, 1 «forces», côpiae, -ârum, _f., plur. of_ côpia «forest», silva, -ae, _f._ «fort», castellum, -î, _n._; castrum, -î, _n._ «fortification», mûnitiô, -ônis, _f._ «fortify», mûniô, 4 «fortune», fortûna, -ae, _f._ «fourth», quârtus, -a, -um «free», lîber, -era, -erum «free, liberate», lîberô, 1 «frequent», crêber, -bra, -brum «friend», amîcus, -î, _m._ «friendly» (_adj._), amîcus, -a, -um «friendly» (_adv._), amîcê «friendship», amîcitia, -ae, _f._ «frighten», perterreô, 2 «from», â _or_ ab, dê, ê, ex, _with abl._ _Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep._ «from each other», inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._ «full», plênus, -a, -um G «Galba», Galba, -ae, _m._ _garland_, corôna, -ae, _f._ «garrison», praesidium, praesi´dî, _n._ «gate», porta, -ae, _f._ «Gaul», Gallia, -ae, _f._ «Gaul» («a»), Gallus, -î, _m._ «general», imperâtor, -ôris, _m._ «Geneva», Genâva, -ae, _f._ «gentle», lênis, -e «German», Germânus, -a, -um «Germans» («the»), Germânî, -ôrum, _m. plur_. «Germany», Germânia, -ae, _f._ «get» (_dinner_), parô, 1 «girl», puella, -ae, _f._ «give», dô, dare, dedî, datus «give over, surrender», dêdô, 3; trâdô, 3 «give up», omittô, 3 «go», eô, 4 (§499) «go forth», prôgredior, 3 «god», deus, -î, _m._ (§468) «goddess», dea, -ae, _f._ (§67) «gold», aurum, -î, _n._ «good», bonus, -a, -um «grain», frûmentum, -î, _n._ «grain supply», rês frûmentâria «great», ingêns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «greatest», maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um «guard», praesidium, praesi´dî, _n._ H «hand», manus, -ûs, _f._ «happy», laetus, -a, -um «harbor», portus, -ûs, _m._ «hasten», contendô, 3; mâtûrô, 1; properô, 1 «hateful», invîsus, -a, -um «haughty», superbus, -a, -um «have», habeô, 2 «have no power», nihil possum «he», is; hic; iste; ille; _or not expressed_ «head», caput, -itis, _n._ «hear», audiô «heart», animus, -î, _m._ «heavy», gravis, -e «Helvetii» («the»), Helvêtiî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «hem in», contineô, 2 «hen», gallîna, -ae, _f._ «her», eius; huius; istîus; illîus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hide», abdô, 3 «high», altus, -a, -um «highest», summus, -a, -um «hill», collis, -is, _m._ «himself», suî. See «self» «hindrance», impedîmentum, -î, _n._ «his», eius; huius; istîus; illîus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hither», citerior, -ius (§315) «hold», teneô, 2 «home», domus, -ûs, _f._ (§468). «at home», domî (§267) «hope» (_noun_), spês, speî, _f._ «hope» (_verb_), spêrô, 1 «horse», equus, -î, _m._ «horseman», eques, -itis, _m._ «hostage», obses, -idis, _m. and f._ «hostile», inimîcus, -a, -um «hour», hôra, -ae, _f._ «house», domicilium, domici´lî, _n._; domus, -ûs, _f._ (§468) «hurl», iaciô, 3 I «I», ego (§280); _or not expressed_ «if», sî. «if not», nisi «ill», aeger, -gra, -grum «immediately», statim «in» (_of place_), in, _with abl._; (of time or of specification) _abl. without prep._ «in order that», ut, _with subjv._; «in order that not, lest», nê, _with subjv._ «in vain», frûstrâ «industry», dîligentia, -ae, _f._ «inflict injuries upon», iniûriâs înferô _with dat._ (§426) «inflict punishment on», supplicium sûmô de «inform some one», aliquem certiôrem faciô «injure», noceô, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «injury», iniûria, -ae, _f._ «into», in, _with acc._ «intrust», committô, 3; mandô, 1 «invite», vocô, 1 «is», _used as auxiliary, not translated_; _as a copula_, sum (§494) «island», însula, -ae, _f._ «it», is; hie; iste; ille; _or not expressed_ «Italy», Italia, -ae, _f._ «its», eius; huius; istîus; illîus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «itself», suî. See «self» J «join battle», proelium committô «journey», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468) «judge» (_noun_), iûdex, -icis, _m._ «judge» (_verb_), iûdicô, 1 «Julia», Iûlia, -ae, _f._ «just now», nûper K «keep», contineô, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneô, 2 «keep on doing something», _expressed by the impf. indic._ «kill», interficiô, 3; necô, 1; occîdô, 3 «king», rêx, rêgis, _m._ «kingdom», rêgnum, -î, _n._ «know», cognôscô, 3, _in perf._; sciô, 4 L «labor» (_noun_), labor, -ôris, _m._ «labor» (_verb_), labôrô, 1 «lack» (_noun_), inopia, -ae, _f._ «lack» (_verb_), egeô, 2, _with abl._ (§180) «lady», domina, -ae, _f._ «lake», lacus, -ûs, _m._ (§260.2) «land», terra, -ae, _f._ «language», lingua, -ae, _f._ «large», ingêns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «larger», maior, maius «lately», nûper «Latona», Lâtôna, -ae, _f._ «law», lêx, lêgis, _f._ «lay waste», vâstô, 1 «lead», dûco, 3 «leader», dux, ducis, _m. and f._ «learn, know», cognôscô, 3 «leave, depart from», discêdô, 3 «leave behind, abandon», relinquô, 3 «left», sinister, -tra, -trum «legion», legiô, -ônis, _f._ «legionaries», legiônâriî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «length», longitûdô, -inis, _f._ «lest», nê, _with subjv._ «letter» (_of the alphabet_), littera, -ae, _f_; (_an epistle_) litterae, -ârum, _f. plur_. «lieutenant», lêgâtus, -î, _m._ «light», lûx, lûcis, _f._ «like» (_adj._), similis, -e «like, love», amô, 1 «line of battle», aciês, aciêî, _f._ «little», parvus, -a, -um «live», habitô, 1; incolô, 3; vîvô, 3 «long», longus, -a, -um «long, for a long time», diû «long for», dêsîderô, 1 «look after», cûrô, 1 «love», amô, 1 M «maid, maid servant», ancilla, -ae,_f._ «make», faciô, 3 «make war upon», bellum înferô _with dat._ (§426) «man», homô, -inis, _m. and f._; vir, virî, _m._ «man-of-war», nâvis longa «many», multî, -ae, -a, _plur. of_ multus «march», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468) «Mark», Mârcus, -î, _m._ «marriage», mâtrimônium, mâtrimô´nî, _n._ «master», dominus, -î, _m._; magîster, -trî, _m._ «matter», negôtium, negô´tî, _n._; rês, reî, _f._ «means, by means of», _the abl._ «messenger», nûntius, nûntî, _m._ «midnight», media nox «mile», mîlle passuum (§331.b) «miles», mîlia passuum «mind», animus, -î, _m._; mêns, mentis, _f._ «mine», meus, -a, -um «mistress», domina, -ae, _f._ «money», pecûnia, -ae, _f._ «monster», mônstrum, -î, _n._ «month», mênsis, -is, _m._ «moon», lûna, -ae, _f._ «more» (_adj._), plûs, plûris (§313); _or a comparative. Adverb_, magis «most» (_adj._), plûrimus, -a, -um; _superl. degree. Adverb_, maximê; plûrimum «mother», mâter, mâtris, _f._ «mountain», môns, montis, _m._ «move», moveô, 2 «moved», commôtus, -a, -um «much (by)», multô «multitude», multitûdô, -inis. _f._ «my», meus, -a, -um «myself», mê, _reflexive_. See «self» N «name», nômen, -inis, _n._ «nation», gêns, gentis, _f._ «near», propinquus, -a, -um «nearest», proximus, -a, -um «nearly», ferê «neighbor», fînitimus, -î, _in._ «neighboring», fîinitimus, -a, -um «neither», neque _or_ nec; «neither ... nor», neque (nec) ... neque (nec) «never», numquam «nevertheless», tamen «new», novus, -a, -um «next day», postrîdiê eius diêî «next to», proximus, -a, -um «night», nox, noctis, _f._ «nine», novem «no», minimê; _or repeat verb with a negative_ (§210) «no, none», nûllus, -a, -um (§109) «no one», nêmô, nûllîus «nor», neque _or_ nec «not», nôn «not even», nê ... quidem «not only ... but also», nôn sôlum ... sed etiam «nothing», nihil _or_ nihilum, -î, _n._ «now», nunc «number», numerus, -î, _m._ O «obey», pâreô, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «of», _sign of gen._; dê, _with abl._; «out of», ê _or_ ex, _with abl._ «often», saepe «on» (_of place_), in, _with abl._; (_of time_) _abl. without prep._ «on account of», propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause._ «on all sides», undique «once» (_upon a time_), ôlim «one», ûnus, -a, -um (§108) «one ... another», alius ... alius (§110) «only» (_adv._), sôlum; tantum «opportune», opportunus, -a, -um «opposite», adversus, -a, -um «oracle», ôrâculum, -î, _n._ «orator», ôrâtor, -ôris, _m._ «order», imperô, 1; iubeô, 2 «ornament», ôrnâmentum, -î, _n._ «other», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «others (the)», reliquî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «ought», dêbeô, 2 «our», noster, -tra, -trum «ourselves», nôs, _as reflexive object._ See «self» «overcome», superô, 1; vincô, 3 «own (his, her, its, their)», suus, -a, -um P «part», pars, partis, _f._ «peace», pâx, pâcis, _f._ «people», populus, -î, _m._ «Perseus», Perseus, -î, _m._ «persuade», persuâdeô, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «pitch camp», castra pônô «place» (_noun_), locus, -î, _m._ «place, arrange», conlocô, 1 «place, put», pônô, 3 «place in command», praeficiô, 3, _with acc. and dat._ (§426) «plan (a)», cônsilium, cônsi´lî, _n._ «please», placeô, 2, _with dat._ (§154) «pleasing», grâtus, -a, -um «plow», arô, 1 «Pompeii», Pompêiî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «possible (as)», _expressed by_ quam _and superl_. «powerful (be)», valeô, 2 «praise», laudô, 1 «prefer», mâlô, mâlle, mâluî, ---- (§497) «prepare for», parô, 1, _with acc._ «press hard», premô, 3 «protection», fidês, fideî, _f._ «province», prôvincia, -ae, _f._ «public», pûblicus, -a, -um «Publius», Pûblius, Pûblî, _m._ «punishment», poena, -ae, _f._; supplicium, suppli´cî, _n._ «purpose, for the purpose of», ut, quî, _or_ quô, _with subjv._; ad, _with gerund or gerundive_; causâ, _following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive_ «pursue», însequor, 3 Q «queen», rêgîna, -ae, _f._ «quickly», celeriter «quite», _expressed by the comp. degree_ R «rampart», vâllum, -î, _n._ «rear», novissimum agmen «reason», causa, -ae, _f._ «receive», accipiô, 3; excipiô, 3 «recent», recêns, -entis «recently», nûper «redoubt», castellum, -î, _n._ «refuse», recûsô, 1 «remain», maneô, 2 «remaining», reliquus, -a, -um «reply», respondeô, 2 «report» (_noun_), fama, -ae, _f._; rûmor, -ôris, _m._ «report» (_verb_), adferô; dêferô; referô (§498) «republic», rês pûblica «require», postulô, 1 «resist», resistô, 3, _with dat._ (§154) «rest (the)», reliquî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «restrain», contineô, 2 «retainer», cliêns, -entis, _m._ «retreat», pedem referô; terga vertô «return», redeô, 4; revertor, 3 «revolution», rês novae «Rhine», Rhênus, -î, _m._ «right», dexter, -tra, -trum «river», flûmen, -inis, _n._; fluvius, fluvî, _m._ «road», via, -ae, _f._ «Roman», Rômânus, -a, -um «Rome», Rôma, -ae, _f._ «row», ôrdô, -inis, _m._ «rule», regô, 3 «rumor», fâma, -ae, _f._; rûmor, -ôris, _m._ «run», currô, 3 S «sacrifice», sacrum, -î, _n._ «safety», salûs, -ûtis, _f._ «sail», nâvigô, 1 «sailor», nauta, -ae, _m._ «sake, for the sake of», causâ, _following a gen._ «same», îdem, eadem, idem (§287) «savages», barbarî, -ôrum, _m. plur._ «save», servô, 1 «say», dîcô, 3 «school», lûdus, -î, _m._; schola, -ae, _f._ «scout», explôrâtor, -ôris, _m._ «sea», mare, -is, _n._ «second», secundus, -a, -um «see», videô, 2 «seek», petô, 3 «seem», videor, 2, _passive of_ videô «seize», occupô, 1; rapiô, 3 «self», ipse, -a, -um (§286); suî (§281) «send», mittô, 3 «set fire to», incendô, 3 «set out», proficîscor, 3 «seven», septem «Sextus», Sextus, -î, _m._ «she», ea; haec; ista; illa (§115); _or not expressed_ «ship», nâvis, -is, _f._ (§243.1) «short», brevis, -e «shout», clâmor, -ôris, _m._ «show», dêmônstrô, 1 «Sicily», Sicilia, -ae, _f._ «sick», aeger, -gra, -grum «side», latus, -eris, _n._ «siege», obsidiô, -ônis, _f._ «since», cum, _with subjv._ (§396); _the abl. abs._ (§381) «sing», canô, 3; cantô, 1 «sister», soror, -ôris, _f._ «sit», sedeô, 2 «size», magnitûdô, -inis, _f._ «skillful», perîtus, -a, -um «slave», servus, -î, _m._ «slavery», servitiûs, -ûtis, _f._ «slow», tardus, -a, -um «small», parvus, -a, -um «snatch», rapiô, 3 «so», ita; sîc; tam «so great», tantus, -a, -um «so that», ut; «so that not», ut nôn «soldier», mîles, -itis, _m._ «some», _often not expressed_; quis (quî), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliquî, aliqua, aliquod «some one», quis; aliquis (§487) «some ... others», aliî ... aliî (§110) «something», quid; aliquid (§487) «son», fîlius, fîlî, _m._ «soon», mox «space», spatium, spatî, _n._ «spear», pîlum, -î, _n._ «spirited», âcer, âcris, âcre; alacer, alacris, alacre «spring», fôns, fontis, _m._ «spur», calcar, -âris, _n._ «stand», stô, 1 «state», cîvitâs, -âtis, _f._ «station», conlocô, 1 «steadiness», cônstantia, -ae, _f._ «stone», lapis, -idis, _m._ «storm», oppugnô, 1 «story», fâbula, -ae, _f._ «street», via, -ae, _f._ «strength», vîs, (vîs), _f._ «strong», fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um «sturdy», validus, -a, -um «such», tâlis, -e «suddenly», subitô «suffer punishment», supplicium dô «sufficiently», satis «suitable», idôneus, -a, -um «summer», aestâs, -âtis, _f._ «sun», sôl, sôlis, _m._ «supplies», commeâtus, -ûs, _m._ «surrender», trâdô, 3 «suspect», suspicor, 1 «swift», celer, -eris, -ere; vêlôx, -ôcis «sword», gladius, gladî, _m._ T «take, capture», capiô, 3 «take part in», intersum, -esse, -fuî, -futûrus, _with dat._ (§426) «take possession of», occupô, 1 «tall», altus, -a, -um «task», opus, operis, _n._ «teach», doceô, 2 «teacher», magister, -trî, _m._ «tear» (_noun_), lacrima, -ae, _f._ «tell», dîcô, 3; nârrô, 1 «ten», decem «terrified», perterritus, -a, -um «terrify», perterreô, 2 «than», quam «that» (_conj. after verbs of saying and the like_), _not expressed_ «that» (_pron._), is; iste; ille «that, in order that», _in purpose clauses_, ut; _after verbs of fearing_, nê (§§349, 366, 372) «that not, lest», _in purpose clauses_, nê; _after verbs of fearing_, ut (§§349, 366, 372) «the», _not expressed_ «their», _gen. plur. of_ is; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «their own», suus, -a, -um (§116) «then, at that time», tum «then, in the next place», deinde, tum «there», _as expletive, not expressed_ «there, in that place», ibi «therefore», itaque «they», iî; hî; istî; illî; _or not expressed_ «think», arbitror, 1; exîstimô, 1; putô, 1 «third», tertius, -a, -um «this», hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id «though», cum. _with subjv._ (§396) «thousand», mîlle (§479) «three», três, tria (§479) «through», per, _with acc._ «thy», tuus, -a, -um «time», tempus, -oris, _n._ «to», _sign of dat._; ad, in, _with acc._; _expressing purpose_, ut, quî, _with subjv._; ad, _with gerund or gerundive_ «to each other», inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._ «to-day», hodiê «tooth», dêns, dentis, _m._ «top of», summus, -a, -um «tower», turris, -is, _f._ (§243.2) «town», oppidum, -î, _n._ «townsman», oppidânus, -î, _m._ «trace», vestîgium, vestî´gî, _n._ «trader», mercâtor, -ôris, _m._ «train», exerceô, 2 «tree», arbor, -oris, _f._ «tribe», gêns, gentis, _f._ «troops», côpiae, -ârum, _f. plur._ «true», vêrus, -a, -um «trumpet», tuba, -ae, _f._ «try», cônor, 1; temptô, 1 «twelve», duodecim «two», duo, duae, duo (§479) U «under», sub, _with acc. or abl._ «undertake», suscipiô, 3 «unharmed», incolumis, -e «unless», nisi «unlike», dissimilis, -e «unwilling» («be»), nôlô, nôlle, nôluî, ---- (§497) «up to», sub, _with acc._ «us», nôs, _acc. plur. of_ ego V «very», _superl. degree_; maximê; ipse, -a, -um (§285) «victor», victor, -ôris, _m._ «victory», victôria, -ae, _f._ «village», vîcus, -î, _m._ «violence», vîs, (vîs), _f._ «violently», vehementer «voice», vôx, vôcis, _f._ W «wage», gerô, 3 «wagon», carrus. -î, _m._ «wall», mûrus, -î, _m._ «want», inopia, -ae, _f._ «war», bellum, -î, _n._ «watch», vigilia, -ae, _f._ «water», aqua, -ae, _f._ «wave», fluctus, -ûs, _m._ «way», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468); via, -ae, _f._ «way, manner», modus, -î, _m._ «we», nôs, _plur. of_ ego; _or not expressed_ «weak», înfîrmus, -a, -um «weapons», arma, -ôrum, _n. plur._; têla, -ôrum, _n. plur._ «wear», gerô, 3 «weary», dêfessus, -a, -um «what», quis (quî), quae, quid (quod) (§483) «when», ubi; cum (§396); _often expressed by a participle_ «where», ubi «which», quî, quae, quod (§482); «which of two», uter, utra, utrum (§108) «while», _expressed by a participle_ «whither», quô «who» (_rel._), quî, quae (§482); (_interrog._) quis (§483) «whole», tôtus, -a, -um (§108) «whose», cuius; quôrum, quârum, quôrum, _gen. of_ quî, quae, quod, _rel._; _or of_ quis, quid, _interrog_. «why», cûr «wicked», malus, -a, -um «wide», lâtus, -a, -um «width», lâtitûdô, -inis, _f._ «wild beast», fera, -ae, _f._ «willing» («be»), volô, velle, voluî, ---- (§497) «win» (_a victory_), reportô, 1 «wind», ventus, -î, _m._ «wine», vînum, -î, _n._ «wing», cornû, -ûs, _n._ «winter», hiems, -emis, _f._ «wisdom», cônsilium, consi´lî, _n._ «wish», cupiô, 3; volô, velle, voluî, ---- (§497); «wish not», nôlô, nôlle, nôluî, ---- (§497) «with», cum, _with abl.; sometimes abl. alone_ «withdraw», sê recipere «without», sine, _with abl._ «woman», fêmina, -ae, _f._; mulier, -eris, _f._ «wonderful», mîrus, -a, -um «word», verbum, -î, _n._ «work», labor, -ôris, _m._; opus, -eris, _n._ «worse», peior, peius, _comp. of_ malus «worst», pessimus, -a, -um, _superl. of_ malus «wound» (_noun_), vulnus, -eris, _n._ «wound» (_verb_), vulnerô, 1 «wreath», corôna, -ae, _f._ «wretched», miser, -era, -erum «wrong», iniûria, -ae, _f._ Y «year», annus, -î, _m._ «yes», certê; ita; vêrô; _or, more usually, repeat the verb_ (§210) «yonder (that)», ille, -a, -ud «you», _sing_. tû; _plur_. vôs (§480); _or not expressed_ «your», _sing_. tuus, -a, -um; _plur._ vester, -tra, -trum (§98.b) Z «zeal», studium, studî, _n._ INDEX The numbers in all cases refer to sections. «â»-declension of nouns, 57, 461 «â»-verbs, conjugation of, 488 «ablative» case, 48, 50 absolute, 381 after a comparative, 309 of accompaniment, 104 of agent, 181 of cause, 102 of description, 444, 445 of manner, 105 of means or instrument, 103 of measure of difference, 317 of place from which, 179 of place where, 265 of separation, 180 of specification, 398 of time, 275 «accent», 14-16 «accompaniment» abl. of, 104 «accusative» case, 33 as subject of the infinitive, 214 object, 37 of duration and extent, 336 of place to which, 263, 266 predicate, 392 with prepositions, 340 «adjectives», 54, 55 agreement, 65 comparison regular, 301 by adverbs, 302 irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315 declension of comparatives, 303 of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469 of third declension, 250-257, 471 with the dative, 143 «adverbs», 319 comparison, 320, 323 formation regular, 320, 321 irregular, 322, 323 «agent» expressed by the abl. with _â_ or _ab_, 181 «agreement» of adjectives, 65, 215.a of appositives, 81 of predicate nouns, 76 of relative pronouns, 224 of verbs, 28 «aliquis», 487 «alius», 108, 110, 470 «alphabet», 1-3 «alter», 108, 110 «antepenult», 9.3; accent of, 15 «apposition», 80, 81 «article» not used in Latin, 22.a «base», 58 «cardinal numerals», 327-329, 478 «case», 32.2 «causal clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «cause», expressed by the abl., 102 «characteristic» subjv. of, 389, 390 «comparative» declension of, 303 «comparison» abl. of, 309 degrees of, 300 of adjectives, 300-315 irregular, 311-315, 473, 475 of adverbs regular, 320-476 irregular, 323, 477 positive wanting, 315 six adjectives in _-lis_, 307 «complementary infinitive», 215 «compound verbs» with the dative, 425, 426 «concessive» «clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «conjugation stems», 184 «conjugations» the four regular, 126, 488-491 irregular, 494-500 «consonants», 2 «copula», 21 «cum» conjunction, 395 «cum» preposition, 209 «dative» case, 43 of indirect object, 44, 45 of purpose, or end for which, 437 with adjectives, 143 with compound verbs, 426 with special verbs, 153 «dea» declension of, 67 «declension», 23, 32 «degree of difference» expressed by the abl., 317 «demonstrative adjectives and pronouns», 112-115, 290-292, 481 «deponent verbs», 338, 339, 493 «descriptive ablative and genitive», 441-445 «descriptive relative clause» with the subjv., 389, 390 «deus» declension of, 468 «difference, measure of», 316, 317 «diphthongs», 6 «direct statements», 414 «distributive numerals», 327.3, 334 «domî» locative, 267 «domus» declension of, 468 «duo» declension of, 479 «duration» of time, expressed by the acc., 336 «ê»-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467 «ê»-verbs, conjugation of, 489 «e»-verbs, conjugation of, 490 «ego» declension of, 280, 480 «enclitics», 16 «eô» conjugation of, 499 «extent» of space expressed by the acc., 336 «fearing» subjv. after verbs of, 370-372 «ferô» conjugation of, 498 «fifth or ê-declension», 272, 273, 467 «fîlia» declension of, 67 «fîlius» declension of, 87-89 «finite verb» defined, 173 «fîô» conjugation of, 500 «first conjugation», 488 «first or â-declension», 57, 461 «fourth conjugation», 491 «fourth or u-declension», 259, 260, 466 «from» how expressed, 178-181 «future participle» formation of, 374.c «future perfect» formation of active, 187.3 passive, 202 «future tense» formation of, 137, 156 «gender» in English and in Latin, 60 in the first declension, 61 in the second declension, 72 in the third declension, 247 in the fourth declension, 260 in the fifth declension, 272 «general observations on declension», 74 «genitive» case English equivalents of, 33 of description, 443, 445 of nouns in _-ius_ and _-ium_, 87 partitive, 331 possessive, 38, 409 «gerund» a verbal noun, 402, 403 «gerundive» a verbal adjective, 404 with _ad_ to express purpose, 407 «hic» declension and use of, 290, 291 «how to read Latin», 17 «i» consonant, 3 «i»-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244 «î»-verbs conjugation of, 491 «îdem» declension of, 287, 481 «iêns» declension of, 472 «ille» declension and use of, 290-293, 481 «imperative» formation of, 161, 175 irregular, 161.2 in commands, 161 «imperfect indicative», formation and use of, 133, 134, 165.1 «imperfect subjunctive», 354 «indefinite pronouns and adjectives», 296, 297, 484-487 «independent clauses», 219 «indirect object», 44, 45 «indirect questions», 430-432 «indirect statements», 414-419 «infinitive» as object, 213 as subject, 216 complementary, 215 definition of, 173 does not express purpose, 352 formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206 in indirect statements, 415-410 used as in English, 213-216 «inflection» defined, 23 «instrument» abl. of, 100.b, 103 «intensive pronoun» _ipse_, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481 «interrogative pronouns and adjectives», 225-227, 483 «intransitive verbs», defined, 20.a with the dative, 153 «iô-verbs of the third conj.», 492 «ipse» declension and use of, 285, 481 «irregular adjectives», 108 «irregular comparison» of adjectives, 307 311, 312 of adverbs, 323 «irregular nouns», 67, 246, 468 «irregular verbs», 494-500 «is» declension and use of, 113-116 «iste» declension and use of, 290, 292, 481 «iter» declension of, 468 «Latin word order», 68 «locative» case, 267 «magis and maximê» comparison by, 302 «mâlô» conjugation of, 4.97 «manner» abl. of, 105 «means» abl. of, 103 «measure of difference» abl. of, 316, 317 «mîlle», declension of, 479 construction with, 331.a,b «moods», defined, 121 «-ne», enclitic in questions, 210 «nê», conj., _that not, lest_ with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II with verbs of fearing, 370 «nine irregular adjectives», 108-110 «nôlô» conjugation of, 497 «nominative» case, 35, 36 «nônne» in questions, 210 «nôs» declension of, 280, 480 «nouns», 19. 2 first declension, 57, 461 second declension, 71-74,87-92,462 third declension, 230-247, 463-465 fourth declension, 259, 260, 466 fifth declension, 272, 273, 467 «num», in questions, 210 «number», 24 «numerals», 327-334, 478, 479 «o»-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462 «object», 20 direct, 37 indirect, 44, 45 «order of words», 68 «ordinal numerals», 327. 2, 478 «participial stem», 201.2 «participles», defined, 203 agreement of, 204 formation, of present, 374.b of perfect, 201 of future, 374.c,d of deponent verbs, 375 tenses of, 376 translated by a clause, 377 «partitive genitive», 330, 331 «passive voice» defined, 163 formation of, 164, 202 «penult», 9.3 accent of, 15 «perfect indicative» formation, in the active, 185, 186 in the passive, 202 meaning of, 190 definite, 190 indefinite, 190 distinguished from the imperfect, 190 «perfect infinitive» active, 195 passive, 205 «perfect passive participle», 201 «perfect stem», 185 «perfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 362 «person», 122 «personal endings» active, 122 passive, 164 «personal pronouns», 280, 480 «place» where, whither, whence, 263-265 names of towns and _domus_ and _rûs_, 266-268 «pluperfect indicative» active, 187.2 passive, 202 «pluperfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 363 «plûs» declension of, 313 «possessive pronouns», 97, 98 «possum» conjugation of, 495 «predicate» defined, 19 «predicate adjective» defined, 55 «predicate noun», 75, 76 «prepositions» with the abl., 209 with the acc., 340 «present indicative», 128, 130, 147 «present stem», 126.a «present subjunctive», 344 «primary tenses», 356 «principal parts», 183 «pronouns» classification of, 278 defined, 19.2.a demonstrative, 481 indefinite, 297, 484-487 intensive, 285, 286, 481 interrogative, 483 personal, 480 possessive, 97, 98 reflexive, 281 relative, 220, 221 «pronunciation», 4-7 «prôsum» conjugation of, 496 «purpose» dative of, 436, 437 expressed by the gerund or gerundive with _ad_, 407 not expressed by the infinitive, 352 subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367 «quality» gen. or abl. of, 441-445 «quam» with a comparative, 308 «quantity», 11-13 «questions» direct, 210 indirect, 430-432 «quî» declension and use of, 220,221, 482 «quîdam» declension of, 485 «quis» declension and use of, 225-227, 483 «quisquam» declension of, 486 «quisque» declension of, 484 «reflexive pronouns», 281 «relative clauses of characteristic or description», 389, 390 «relative clauses of purpose», 348, 349 «relative pronouns», 220, 221 «result clauses», 384-387 «reviews», 502-528 «rûs» constructions of, 266 «sê» distinguished from _ipse_, 285.a «second conjugation», 489 «second or o-declension», 71-93, 462 «sentences» simple, complex, compound, 219 «separation» abl. of, 180 «separative ablative», 178-181 «sequence of tenses», 356-358 «space» extent of, expressed by the acc., 336 «specification» abl. of, 398 «stems» of nouns, 230 of verbs, 184 «subject» defined, 19.2 of the infinitive, 213, 214 «subjunctive» formation of the present, 344 of the imperfect, 354 of the perfect, 361, 362 of the pluperfect, 361.c, 363 «subjunctive constructions» characteristic or description, 389, 390 indirect questions, 430-432 purpose, 349, 366, 372 result, 385, 386 time, cause, or concession, with _cum_, 395, 396 «subjunctive ideas», 346 «subjunctive tenses», 342, 343 «subordinate clauses», 219 «suî» declension of, 281, 480 «sum» conjugation of, 494 «suus» use of, 98.c, 116 «syllables», 8 division of, 9 quantity of, 13 «syntax» rules of, 501 «temporal clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «tense» defined, 120 «tense signs» imperfect, 133 future, 137, 156 pluperfect active, 187.2 future perfect active, 187.3 «tenses» primary and secondary, 356 sequence of, 357, 358 «third conjugation», 490, 492 «third declension of nouns» classes, 231, 463 consonant stems, 232-238, 464 gender, 247 i-stems, 241-244, 465 irregular nouns, 246 «time» abl. of, 275 «time» acc. of, 336 «towns» rules for names of, 266, 267, 268 «transitive verb», 20.a «três» declension of, 479 «tû» declension of, 280, 480 «tuus» compared with _vester_, 98. b «u»-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466 «ultima», 9. 3 «verbs» agreement of, 28 conjugation of, 126, 488-491 deponent, 338, 339, 493 irregular, 494-500 personal endings of, 122, 164 principal parts of, 183 «vester» compared with _tuus_, 98.b «vîs» declension of, 468 «vocabularies» English-Latin, pp. 332-343 Latin-English, pp. 299-331 special, pp. 283-298 «vocative» case, 56.a of nouns in _-us_ of the second declension, 73.b of proper nouns in _-ius_ and of _fîlius_, 88 «voice» defined, 163 «volô» conjugation of, 497 «vôs» declension of, 280, 480 «vowels» sounds of, 5, 6 quantity of, 12 End of Project Gutenberg's Latin for 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